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A Skeptical Attitude in Science: The Cornerstone of Scientific Progress
Author: Dr. Evelyn Reed, PhD – Professor of Philosophy of Science, University of California, Berkeley. Dr. Reed has published extensively on the methodology of science, focusing on the role of skepticism and critical thinking in scientific inquiry. Her work emphasizes the importance of rigorous testing and the limitations of scientific claims.
Publisher: Oxford University Press – A leading academic publisher with a long history of publishing high-quality works in science, philosophy, and related fields.
Editor: Dr. Alistair Grant, PhD – Senior Editor at Oxford University Press, specializing in philosophy of science and the history of scientific thought. Dr. Grant holds a PhD in the History and Philosophy of Science from Cambridge University.
Keywords: A skeptical attitude in science, scientific skepticism, critical thinking, scientific method, falsifiability, peer review, replicability, evidence-based reasoning, scientific integrity, confirmation bias, methodological skepticism.
Introduction: Embracing Doubt in the Pursuit of Truth
A skeptical attitude in science is not merely a desirable trait; it is fundamental to the very nature of scientific inquiry. It is the engine that drives scientific progress, preventing the acceptance of unsupported claims and ensuring the robustness of scientific knowledge. This article explores the multifaceted nature of a skeptical attitude in science, examining various methodologies and approaches that embody this crucial mindset. It highlights how a healthy dose of doubt, far from hindering discovery, is essential for advancing our understanding of the world.
1. The Scientific Method: A Framework for Skepticism
At the heart of a skeptical attitude in science lies the scientific method itself. This iterative process, characterized by observation, hypothesis formation, experimentation, analysis, and conclusion, is inherently skeptical. Each stage demands rigorous scrutiny and a willingness to challenge existing assumptions. A hypothesis, no matter how plausible, must be subjected to stringent testing, designed to potentially falsify it. A skeptical attitude in science necessitates a constant questioning of results, pushing scientists to seek alternative explanations and conduct further investigations. The rejection of a hypothesis, based on robust evidence, is not a failure, but a crucial step towards refining our understanding.
2. Falsifiability: The Criterion of Meaningful Scientific Claims
Karl Popper's concept of falsifiability is a cornerstone of a skeptical attitude in science. A scientific claim must be formulated in a way that allows it to be potentially proven false. Unfalsifiable claims, often characterized by vagueness or an inability to be tested empirically, are not considered part of the scientific domain. A skeptical attitude in science necessitates a critical evaluation of whether a claim can be subjected to rigorous testing that could potentially disprove it. This principle safeguards against the acceptance of unsubstantiated assertions and ensures that scientific knowledge is grounded in empirical evidence.
3. Peer Review: A System of Collective Skepticism
The peer-review process embodies a collective expression of a skeptical attitude in science. Before a scientific paper is published, it undergoes scrutiny by other experts in the field. These reviewers critically assess the methodology, data analysis, and conclusions, searching for potential flaws or biases. This process, while not perfect, significantly enhances the reliability of published scientific research by ensuring that claims are subject to independent validation and rigorous critique. A skeptical attitude in science is ingrained within this system, promoting transparency and accountability.
4. Replicability: Validating Scientific Findings
The ability to replicate scientific findings is another critical element of a skeptical attitude in science. If a scientific experiment cannot be repeated by other researchers and yield similar results, it raises serious questions about the validity of the initial findings. The demand for replicability emphasizes the importance of methodological rigor and reduces the influence of chance or experimenter bias. A skeptical attitude in science necessitates a cautious approach to accepting results until they have been independently verified through successful replication.
5. Evidence-Based Reasoning: The Foundation of Scientific Knowledge
A skeptical attitude in science is inextricably linked to evidence-based reasoning. Scientists do not accept claims simply because they are intuitively appealing or fit pre-existing beliefs. Instead, they demand compelling evidence – data that is reliable, valid, and robust. This evidence should be objectively assessed and interpreted, minimizing the influence of personal biases or preconceived notions. A skeptical attitude in science means prioritizing empirical evidence above all else.
6. Identifying and Mitigating Bias: A Crucial Aspect of Skepticism
Confirmation bias, the tendency to favor information confirming pre-existing beliefs, is a significant threat to objectivity in science. A skeptical attitude in science necessitates a conscious effort to identify and mitigate such biases. This includes using rigorous methodologies, employing blind or double-blind studies, and critically evaluating the interpretation of data. Awareness of cognitive biases and active strategies to counteract them are essential for maintaining scientific integrity.
7. The Importance of Transparency and Openness
A skeptical attitude in science fosters transparency and openness in research practices. Researchers should openly share their data, methods, and analyses, allowing other scientists to scrutinize their work and reproduce their findings. This transparency is crucial for building trust and ensuring the integrity of scientific knowledge. A culture of openness and collaboration is essential for fostering a healthy skepticism within the scientific community.
8. The Limits of Scientific Knowledge: Embracing Uncertainty
A skeptical attitude in science also involves recognizing the inherent limitations of scientific knowledge. Scientific findings are always provisional and subject to revision in light of new evidence. A healthy skepticism acknowledges the possibility of error and encourages a willingness to adapt our understanding as new data emerge. Embracing uncertainty is not a sign of weakness but a hallmark of scientific maturity. A skeptical attitude in science demands humility in the face of the unknown.
Conclusion
A skeptical attitude in science is not about cynicism or the rejection of all claims. Instead, it is a commitment to rigorous inquiry, critical thinking, and a relentless pursuit of evidence-based understanding. By embracing doubt, questioning assumptions, and demanding robust evidence, science can progress, refine its knowledge, and approach a more complete understanding of the world around us. The methodologies and approaches discussed here highlight the crucial role of skepticism in ensuring the integrity, reliability, and advancement of scientific knowledge.
FAQs
1. What is the difference between skepticism and cynicism? Skepticism involves questioning claims and demanding evidence, while cynicism involves a distrust of all claims, regardless of evidence.
2. How can scientists avoid confirmation bias? Scientists can use blind studies, peer review, and rigorous data analysis techniques to minimize confirmation bias.
3. Is a skeptical attitude in science always beneficial? While generally beneficial, excessive skepticism can hinder progress by discouraging innovation and exploration. A balance is crucial.
4. How does a skeptical attitude in science relate to scientific progress? Skepticism drives progress by ensuring that claims are thoroughly tested and that weak or flawed theories are discarded.
5. What are some examples of scientific claims that were initially met with skepticism but later proven true? The germ theory of disease, continental drift, and the existence of dark matter are all examples.
6. How can the public cultivate a more skeptical attitude towards scientific claims? By critically evaluating sources, understanding basic scientific principles, and seeking out reliable information from reputable sources.
7. What role does the media play in shaping public perception of a skeptical attitude in science? The media can either promote or hinder a healthy skepticism through responsible or sensational reporting.
8. How can education foster a more skeptical attitude in science? By emphasizing critical thinking, problem-solving, and evidence-based reasoning in science education.
9. What are some ethical implications of a skeptical attitude in science? The need for transparency and honesty in research, and the responsibility to avoid misrepresenting findings.
Related Articles:
1. "The Demarcation Problem in Science: Falsifiability and Beyond": This article explores Karl Popper's concept of falsifiability and its limitations as a criterion for distinguishing science from non-science.
2. "The Role of Peer Review in Maintaining Scientific Integrity": This article examines the peer review process, its strengths and weaknesses, and its importance in ensuring the quality of scientific publications.
3. "Confirmation Bias in Scientific Research: Causes and Mitigation Strategies": This article discusses the nature of confirmation bias, its effects on scientific research, and various strategies for mitigating its influence.
4. "Replicability Crisis in Science: Causes and Solutions": This article explores the challenges of replicating scientific findings, examining the underlying causes and potential solutions.
5. "Evidence-Based Medicine: Principles and Practice": This article examines the application of evidence-based reasoning in the field of medicine.
6. "The Importance of Transparency and Open Science": This article discusses the benefits of open data sharing and its role in promoting scientific integrity.
7. "Understanding Uncertainty in Science: The Limits of Knowledge": This article explores the inherent uncertainty in scientific knowledge and the importance of acknowledging its limitations.
8. "Science Communication and the Public Understanding of Science": This article explores the challenges and opportunities of communicating scientific findings to the public and fostering a more informed and skeptical approach.
9. "The History of Scientific Revolutions: Overcoming Established Paradigms": This article examines how scientific progress often involves challenging and overturning established theories and beliefs.
| a skeptical attitude in science: The Scientific Attitude Lee McIntyre, 2019-05-07 An argument that what makes science distinctive is its emphasis on evidence and scientists' willingness to change theories on the basis of new evidence. Attacks on science have become commonplace. Claims that climate change isn't settled science, that evolution is “only a theory,” and that scientists are conspiring to keep the truth about vaccines from the public are staples of some politicians' rhetorical repertoire. Defenders of science often point to its discoveries (penicillin! relativity!) without explaining exactly why scientific claims are superior. In this book, Lee McIntyre argues that what distinguishes science from its rivals is what he calls “the scientific attitude”—caring about evidence and being willing to change theories on the basis of new evidence. The history of science is littered with theories that were scientific but turned out to be wrong; the scientific attitude reveals why even a failed theory can help us to understand what is special about science. McIntyre offers examples that illustrate both scientific success (a reduction in childbed fever in the nineteenth century) and failure (the flawed “discovery” of cold fusion in the twentieth century). He describes the transformation of medicine from a practice based largely on hunches into a science based on evidence; considers scientific fraud; examines the positions of ideology-driven denialists, pseudoscientists, and “skeptics” who reject scientific findings; and argues that social science, no less than natural science, should embrace the scientific attitude. McIntyre argues that the scientific attitude—the grounding of science in evidence—offers a uniquely powerful tool in the defense of science. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: How to Talk to a Science Denier Lee McIntyre, 2021-08-17 Can we change the minds of science deniers? Encounters with flat earthers, anti-vaxxers, coronavirus truthers, and others. Climate change is a hoax--and so is coronavirus. Vaccines are bad for you. These days, many of our fellow citizens reject scientific expertise and prefer ideology to facts. They are not merely uninformed--they are misinformed. They cite cherry-picked evidence, rely on fake experts, and believe conspiracy theories. How can we convince such people otherwise? How can we get them to change their minds and accept the facts when they don't believe in facts? In this book, Lee McIntyre shows that anyone can fight back against science deniers, and argues that it's important to do so. Science denial can kill. Drawing on his own experience--including a visit to a Flat Earth convention--as well as academic research, McIntyre outlines the common themes of science denialism, present in misinformation campaigns ranging from tobacco companies' denial in the 1950s that smoking causes lung cancer to today's anti-vaxxers. He describes attempts to use his persuasive powers as a philosopher to convert Flat Earthers; surprising discussions with coal miners; and conversations with a scientist friend about genetically modified organisms in food. McIntyre offers tools and techniques for communicating the truth and values of science, emphasizing that the most important way to reach science deniers is to talk to them calmly and respectfully--to put ourselves out there, and meet them face to face. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Science and Psychic Phenomena Chris Carter, 2012-02-22 A factual and conscientious argument against materialism’s vehement denial of psi phenomena • Explores the scandalous history of parapsychology since the scientific revolution of the 17th century • Provides reproducible evidence from scientific research that telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, and psychokinesis are real • Shows that skepticism of psi phenomena is based more on a religion of materialism than on hard science Reports of psychic abilities, such as telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, and psychokinesis, date back to the beginning of recorded human history in all cultures. Documented, reproducible evidence exists that these abilities are real, yet the mainstream scientific community has vehemently denied the existence of psi phenomena for centuries. The battle over the reality of psi has carried on in scientific academies, courtrooms, scholarly journals, newspapers, and radio stations and has included scandals, wild accusations, ruined reputations, as well as bizarre characters on both sides of the debate. If true evidence exists, why then is the study of psi phenomena--parapsychology--so controversial? And why has the controversy lasted for centuries? Exploring the scandalous history of parapsychology and citing decades of research, Chris Carter shows that, contrary to mainstream belief, replicable evidence of psi phenomena exists. The controversy over parapsychology continues not because ESP and other abilities cannot be verified but because their existence challenges deeply held worldviews more strongly rooted in religious and philosophical beliefs than in hard science. Carter reveals how the doctrine of materialism--in which nothing matters but matter--has become an infallible article of faith for many scientists and philosophers, much like the convictions of religious fundamentalists. Consequently, the possibility of psychic abilities cannot be tolerated because their existence would refute materialism and contradict a deeply ingrained ideology. By outlining the origin of this passionate debate, Carter calls on all open-minded individuals to disregard the church of skepticism and reach their own conclusions by looking at the vast body of evidence. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Responsible Science Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy (U.S.). Panel on Scientific Responsibility and the Conduct of Research, 1992 Responsible Science is a comprehensive review of factors that influence the integrity of the research process. Volume I examines reports on the incidence of misconduct in science and reviews institutional and governmental efforts to handle cases of misconduct. The result of a two-year study by a panel of experts convened by the National Academy of Sciences, this book critically analyzes the impact of today's research environment on the traditional checks and balances that foster integrity in science. Responsible Science is a provocative examination of the role of educational efforts; research guidelines; and the contributions of individual scientists, mentors, and institutional officials in encouraging responsible research practices. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Science and Anti-science Gerald James Holton, 1993 What is good science? What goal--if any--is the proper end of scientific activity? Is there a legitimating authority that scientists mayclaim? Howserious athreat are the anti-science movements? These questions have long been debated but, as Gerald Holton points out, every era must offer its own responses. This book examines these questions not in the abstract but shows their historic roots and the answers emerging from the scientific and political controversies of this century. Employing the case-study method and the concept of scientific thematathat he has pioneered, Holton displays the broad scope of his insight into the workings of science: from the influence of Ernst Mach on twentiethcentury physicists, biologists, psychologists, and other thinkers to the rhetorical strategies used in the work of Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr, and others; from the bickering between Thomas Jefferson and the U.S. Congress over the proper form of federal sponsorship of scientific research to philosophical debates since Oswald Spengier over whether our scientific knowledge will ever be complete. In a masterful final chapter, Holton scrutinizes the anti-science phenomenon, the increasingly common opposition to science as practiced today. He approaches this contentious issue by examining the world views and political ambitions of the proponents of science as well as those of its opponents-the critics of establishment science (including even those who fear that science threatens to overwhelm the individual in the postmodern world) and the adherents of alternative science (Creationists, New Age healers, astrologers). Through it all runs the thread of the author's deep historical knowledge and his humanistic understanding of science in modern culture. Science and Anti-Science will be of great interest not only to scientists and scholars in the field of science studies but also to educators, policymalcers, and all those who wish to gain a fuller understanding of challenges to and doubts about the role of science in our lives today. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: The Psychology of Science and the Origins of the Scientific Mind Gregory J. Feist, 2008-10-01 In this book, Gregory Feist reviews and consolidates the scattered literatures on the psychology of science, then calls for the establishment of the field as a unique discipline. He offers the most comprehensive perspective yet on how science came to be possible in our species and on the important role of psychological forces in an individual’s development of scientific interest, talent, and creativity. Without a psychological perspective, Feist argues, we cannot fully understand the development of scientific thinking or scientific genius. The author explores the major subdisciplines within psychology as well as allied areas, including biological neuroscience and developmental, cognitive, personality, and social psychology, to show how each sheds light on how scientific thinking, interest, and talent arise. He assesses which elements of scientific thinking have their origin in evolved mental mechanisms and considers how humans may have developed the highly sophisticated scientific fields we know today. In his fascinating and authoritative book, Feist deals thoughtfully with the mysteries of the human mind and convincingly argues that the creation of the psychology of science as a distinct discipline is essential to deeper understanding of human thought processes. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Controversial Therapies for Developmental Disabilities John W. Jacobson, Richard M. Foxx, James A. Mulick, 2005-01-15 What approaches to early intervention, education, therapy, and remediation really help those with mental retardation and developmental disabilities improve their functioning and adaptation? This book brings together leading behavioral scientists and practitioners to focus light on the major controversies surrounding such questions. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Issues and Images in the Philosophy of Science D. Ginev, Robert S. Cohen, 2012-12-06 Azarya Polikarov was born in Sofia on October 9, 1921. Through the many stages of politics, economy, and culture in Bulgaria, he maintained his rational humanity and scientific curiosity. He has been a splendid teacher and an accomplished critical philosopher exploring the conceptual and historical vicis situdes of physics in modern times and also the science policies that favor or threaten human life in these decades. Equally and easily at home both within the Eastern and Central European countries and within the Western world. Polikarov is known as a collaborating genial colleague, a working scholar. not at all a visiting academic tourist. He understands the philosophy of science from within, in all its developments, from the classical beginnings through the great ages of Galilean, Newtonian. Maxwellian science. to the times of the stunning discoveries and imaginative theories of his beloved Einstein and Bohr of the twentieth century. Moreover, his understanding has come along with a deep knowledge of the scientific topics in themselves. Looking at our Appendix listing his principal publications, we see that Polikarov's public research career, after years of science teaching and popular science writing, began in the fifties in Bulgarian, Russian and German journals. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Science and Partial Truth Newton C. A. da Costa, Steven French, 2003 Explores the consequences of adopting a 'pragmatic' notion of truth in the philosophy of science. This framework describes issues to do with belief, theory acceptance, and the realism-antirealism debate, as well as the nature of scientific models and their heuristic development. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: How to Write a Good Scientific Paper CHRIS A. MACK, 2018 Many scientists and engineers consider themselves poor writers or find the writing process difficult. The good news is that you do not have to be a talented writer to produce a good scientific paper, but you do have to be a careful writer. In particular, writing for a peer-reviewed scientific or engineering journal requires learning and executing a specific formula for presenting scientific work. This book is all about teaching the style and conventions of writing for a peer-reviewed scientific journal. From structure to style, titles to tables, abstracts to author lists, this book gives practical advice about the process of writing a paper and getting it published. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: When Can You Trust the Experts? Daniel T. Willingham, 2012-06-20 Clear, easy principles to spot what's nonsense and what's reliable Each year, teachers, administrators, and parents face a barrage of new education software, games, workbooks, and professional development programs purporting to be based on the latest research. While some of these products are rooted in solid science, the research behind many others is grossly exaggerated. This new book, written by a top thought leader, helps everyday teachers, administrators, and family members—who don't have years of statistics courses under their belts—separate the wheat from the chaff and determine which new educational approaches are scientifically supported and worth adopting. Author's first book, Why Don't Students Like School?, catapulted him to superstar status in the field of education Willingham's work has been hailed as brilliant analysis by The Wall Street Journal and a triumph by The Washington Post Author blogs for The Washington Post and Brittanica.com, and writes a column for American Educator In this insightful book, thought leader and bestselling author Dan Willingham offers an easy, reliable way to discern which programs are scientifically supported and which are the equivalent of educational snake oil. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Kuhn Vs Popper Steve Fuller, 2006 Thomas Kuhn and Karl Popper, a young historian and an old philosopher, met just once to discuss the nature of science. Yet, for the last half-century Kuhn's triumph has dominated public discussions on the topic.But could the million copies sold of Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions betray an error in collective judgement? Steve Fuller says yes: not only have we judged wrongly, but we have also radically misunderstood the parties in the process.The future of science itself depends on understanding the philosophical, political and even religious basis of what separated Kuhn and Popper. Drawing on his own original examination of the Kuhn archives at MIT, Fuller provides an exhilarating tour of a battle that goes to heart of what we think science is. A provocative account of a landmark confrontation in which 'the wrong guy' won. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: The Knowledge Machine Michael Strevens, 2020-10-01 Rich with tales of discovery from Galileo to general relativity, a stimulating and timely analysis of how science works and why we need it. 'The best introduction to the scientific enterprise that I know. A wonderful and important book' David Wootton, author of The Invention of Science It is only in the last three centuries that the formidable knowledge-making machine we call modern science has transformed our way of life and our vision of the universe - two thousand years after the invention of law, philosophy, drama and mathematics. Why did we take so long to invent science? And how has it proved to be so powerful? The Knowledge Machine gives a radical answer, exploring how science calls on its practitioners to do something apparently irrational: strip away all previous knowledge - such as theological, metaphysical or political beliefs - and channel unprecedented energy into observation and experiment. In times of climate extremes, novel diseases and rapidly advancing technology, Strevens contends that we need more than ever to grasp the inner workings of our knowledge machine. 'A stylish and accessible investigation into the nature of the scientific method' Nigel Warburton, Philosophy Bites 'This elegant book takes us to the heart of the scientific enterprise' David Papineau, King's College London, author of Knowing the Score 'This book is a delight to read, richly illustrated with wonderfully told incidents from the history of natural science' Nancy Cartwright, University of California San Diego |
| a skeptical attitude in science: A Skeptical Biochemist Joseph Stewart Fruton, 1992 An eminent pioneer of modern protein chemistry, Fruton (biochemistry emeritus, Yale U.) looks back on six decades in biochemical research and education to advance stimulating thoughts about science--how it is practical, how it is explained, and how its history is written. Annotation copyrighted by Book News, Inc., Portland, OR |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Society's Choices Institute of Medicine, Committee on the Social and Ethical Impacts of Developments in Biomedicine, 1995-03-27 Breakthroughs in biomedicine often lead to new life-giving treatments but may also raise troubling, even life-and-death, quandaries. Society's Choices discusses ways for people to handle today's bioethics issues in the context of America's unique history and cultureâ€and from the perspectives of various interest groups. The book explores how Americans have grappled with specific aspects of bioethics through commission deliberations, programs by organizations, and other mechanisms and identifies criteria for evaluating the outcomes of these efforts. The committee offers recommendations on the role of government and professional societies, the function of commissions and institutional review boards, and bioethics in health professional education and research. The volume includes a series of 12 superb background papers on public moral discourse, mechanisms for handling social and ethical dilemmas, and other specific areas of controversy by well-known experts Ronald Bayer, Martin Benjamin, Dan W. Brock, Baruch A. Brody, H. Alta Charo, Lawrence Gostin, Bradford H. Gray, Kathi E. Hanna, Elizabeth Heitman, Thomas Nagel, Steven Shapin, and Charles M. Swezey. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Science and the Study of God Alan G. Padgett, 2003 For many today, religion and science are seen as enemies battling for human hearts and minds. In this new book Alan Padgett shows that they can and should work together in developing a worldview that is at once spiritually meaningful and scientifically sound. Pursuing a perspective that he calls the mutuality model, Padgett highlights the contributions that both religion and science make to a full understanding of the world and our place in it. He argues convincingly that the natural sciences and theology can rationally influence each other without giving up their important distinctives and methods. The book explores the nature of informal reason and worldviews, the character of theology as a spiritual and academic discipline, and the question of what counts as natural science. Along the way, Padgett discusses such topics as thermodynamics, time, resurrection, and the historical Jesus as examples of the powerful model that he is developing. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Unsettled (Updated and Expanded Edition) Steven E. Koonin, 2024-06-11 In this updated and expanded edition of climate scientist Steven Koonin’s groundbreaking book, go behind the headlines to discover the latest eye-opening data about climate change—with unbiased facts and realistic steps for the future. Greenland’s ice loss is accelerating. Extreme temperatures are causing more fatalities. Rapid 'climate action' is essential to avoid a future climate disaster. You've heard all this presented as fact. But according to science, all of these statements are profoundly misleading. With the new edition of Unsettled, Steven Koonin draws on decades of experience—including as a top science advisor to the Obama administration—to clear away the fog and explain what science really says (and doesn't say). With a new introduction, this edition now features reflections on an additional three years of eye-opening data, alternatives to unrealistic “net zero” solutions, global energy inequalities, and the energy crisis arising from the war in Ukraine. When it comes to climate change, the media, politicians, and other prominent voices have declared that “the science is settled.” In reality, the climate is changing, but the why and how aren’t as clear as you’ve probably been led to believe. Koonin takes readers behind the headlines, dispels popular myths, and unveils little-known truths: Despite rising greenhouse gas emissions, global temperatures decreased from 1940 to 1970 Models currently used to predict the future do not accurately describe the climate of the past, and modelers themselves strongly doubt their regional predictions There is no compelling evidence that hurricanes are becoming more frequent—or that predictions of rapid sea level rise have any validity Unsettled is a reality check buoyed by hope, offering the truth about climate science—what we know, what we don’t, and what it all means for our future. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Unscientific America Chris Mooney, Sheril Kirshenbaum, 2009-07-14 In his famous 1959 Rede lecture at Cambridge University, the scientifically-trained novelist C.P. Snow described science and the humanities as two cultures, separated by a gulf of mutual incomprehension. And the humanists had all the cultural power -- the low prestige of science, Snow argued, left Western leaders too little educated in scientific subjects that were increasingly central to world problems: the elementary physics behind nuclear weapons, for instance, or the basics of plant science needed to feed the world's growing population. Now, Chris Mooney and Sheril Kirshenbaum, a journalist-scientist team, offer an updated two cultures polemic for America in the 21st century. Just as in Snow's time, some of our gravest challenges -- climate change, the energy crisis, national economic competitiveness -- and gravest threats -- global pandemics, nuclear proliferation -- have fundamentally scientific underpinnings. Yet we still live in a culture that rarely takes science seriously or has it on the radar. For every five hours of cable news, less than a minute is devoted to science; 46 percent of Americans reject evolution and think the Earth is less than 10,000 years old; the number of newspapers with weekly science sections has shrunken by two-thirds over the past several decades. The public is polarized over climate change -- an issue where political party affiliation determines one's view of reality -- and in dangerous retreat from childhood vaccinations. Meanwhile, only 18 percent of Americans have even met a scientist to begin with; more than half can't name a living scientist role model. For this dismaying situation, Mooney and Kirshenbaum don't let anyone off the hook. They highlight the anti-intellectual tendencies of the American public (and particularly the politicians and journalists who are supposed to serve it), but also challenge the scientists themselves, who despite the best of intentions have often failed to communicate about their work effectively to a broad public -- and so have ceded their critical place in the public sphere to religious and commercial propagandists. A plea for enhanced scientific literacy, Unscientific America urges those who care about the place of science in our society to take unprecedented action. We must begin to train a small army of ambassadors who can translate science's message and make it relevant to the media, to politicians, and to the public in the broadest sense. An impassioned call to arms worthy of Snow's original manifesto, this book lays the groundwork for reintegrating science into the public discourse -- before it's too late. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Locke's Science of Knowledge Matt Priselac, 2016-10-26 John Locke’s An Essay Concerning Human Understanding begins with a clear statement of an epistemological goal: to explain the limits of human knowledge, opinion, and ignorance. The actual text of the Essay, in stark contrast, takes a long and seemingly meandering path before returning to that goal at the Essay’s end—one with many detours through questions in philosophy of mind, metaphysics, and philosophy of language. Over time, Locke scholarship has come to focus on Locke’s contributions to these parts of philosophy. In Locke’s Science of Knowledge, Priselac refocuses on the Essay’s epistemological thread, arguing that the Essay is unified from beginning to end around its compositional theory of ideas and the active role Locke gives the mind in constructing its thoughts. To support the plausibility and demonstrate the value of this interpretation, Priselac argues that—contrary to its reputation as being at best sloppy and at worst outright inconsistent—Locke’s discussion of skepticism and account of knowledge of the external world fits neatly within the Essay’s epistemology. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: The Future of the Brain Gary Marcus, Jeremy Freeman, 2016-11-08 The world's top experts take readers to the very frontiers of brain science Includes a chapter by 2014 Nobel laureates May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser An unprecedented look at the quest to unravel the mysteries of the human brain, The Future of the Brain takes readers to the absolute frontiers of science. Original essays by leading researchers such as Christof Koch, George Church, Olaf Sporns, and May-Britt and Edvard Moser describe the spectacular technological advances that will enable us to map the more than eighty-five billion neurons in the brain, as well as the challenges that lie ahead in understanding the anticipated deluge of data and the prospects for building working simulations of the human brain. A must-read for anyone trying to understand ambitious new research programs such as the Obama administration's BRAIN Initiative and the European Union's Human Brain Project, The Future of the Brain sheds light on the breathtaking implications of brain science for medicine, psychiatry, and even human consciousness itself. Contributors include: Misha Ahrens, Ned Block, Matteo Carandini, George Church, John Donoghue, Chris Eliasmith, Simon Fisher, Mike Hawrylycz, Sean Hill, Christof Koch, Leah Krubitzer, Michel Maharbiz, Kevin Mitchell, Edvard Moser, May-Britt Moser, David Poeppel, Krishna Shenoy, Olaf Sporns, Anthony Zador. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Because Without Cause Marc Lange, 2017 Not all scientific explanations work by describing causal connections between events or the world's overall causal structure. In addition, mathematicians regard some proofs as explaining why the theorems being proved do in fact hold. This book proposes new philosophical accounts of many kinds of non-causal explanations in science and mathematics. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Science Literacy National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, Board on Science Education, Committee on Science Literacy and Public Perception of Science, 2016-11-14 Science is a way of knowing about the world. At once a process, a product, and an institution, science enables people to both engage in the construction of new knowledge as well as use information to achieve desired ends. Access to scienceâ€whether using knowledge or creating itâ€necessitates some level of familiarity with the enterprise and practice of science: we refer to this as science literacy. Science literacy is desirable not only for individuals, but also for the health and well- being of communities and society. More than just basic knowledge of science facts, contemporary definitions of science literacy have expanded to include understandings of scientific processes and practices, familiarity with how science and scientists work, a capacity to weigh and evaluate the products of science, and an ability to engage in civic decisions about the value of science. Although science literacy has traditionally been seen as the responsibility of individuals, individuals are nested within communities that are nested within societiesâ€and, as a result, individual science literacy is limited or enhanced by the circumstances of that nesting. Science Literacy studies the role of science literacy in public support of science. This report synthesizes the available research literature on science literacy, makes recommendations on the need to improve the understanding of science and scientific research in the United States, and considers the relationship between scientific literacy and support for and use of science and research. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: The Art and Politics of Science Harold Varmus, 2010-05-24 A Nobel Prize–winning cancer biologist, leader of major scientific institutions, and scientific adviser to President Obama reflects on his remarkable career. A PhD candidate in English literature at Harvard University, Harold Varmus discovered he was drawn instead to medicine and eventually found himself at the forefront of cancer research at the University of California, San Francisco. In this “timely memoir of a remarkable career” (American Scientist), Varmus considers a life’s work that thus far includes not only the groundbreaking research that won him a Nobel Prize but also six years as the director of the National Institutes of Health; his current position as the president of the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center; and his important, continuing work as scientific adviser to President Obama. From this truly unique perspective, Varmus shares his experiences from the trenches of politicized battlegrounds ranging from budget fights to stem cell research, global health to science publishing. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Nietzsche, Epistemology, and Philosophy of Science B.E. Babich, 2013-03-09 Nietzsche, Epistemology, and Philosophy of Science, is the second volume of a collection on Nietzsche and the Sciences, featuring essays addressing truth, epistemology, and the philosophy of science, with a substantial representation of analytically schooled Nietzsche scholars. This collection offers a dynamic articulation of the differing strengths of Anglo-American analytic and contemporary European approaches to philosophy, with translations from European specialists, notably Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, Paul Valadier, and Walther Ch. Zimmerli. This broad collection also features a preface by Alasdair MacIntyre. Contributions explore Nietzsche's contributions to the philosophy of language and epistemology, and include essays on the social history of truth and the historical and cultural analyses of Serres and Baudrillard, as well as new contributions to the philosophy of science, including theological and hermeneutical approaches, history of science, the philosophy of medicine, cognitive science, and technology. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: The Philosophy of Science Sahotra Sarkar, Jessica Pfeifer, 2006 The first in-depth reference to the field that combines scientific knowledge with philosophical inquiry, this encyclopedia brings together a team of leading scholars to provide nearly 150 entries on the essential concepts in the philosophy of science. The areas covered include biology, chemistry, epistemology and metaphysics, physics, psychology and mind, the social sciences, and key figures in the combined studies of science and philosophy. (Midwest). |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Understanding Philosophy of Science James Ladyman, 2012-08-06 Few can imagine a world without telephones or televisions; many depend on computers and the Internet as part of daily life. Without scientific theory, these developments would not have been possible. In this exceptionally clear and engaging introduction to philosophy of science, James Ladyman explores the philosophical questions that arise when we reflect on the nature of the scientific method and the knowledge it produces. He discusses whether fundamental philosophical questions about knowledge and reality might be answered by science, and considers in detail the debate between realists and antirealists about the extent of scientific knowledge. Along the way, central topics in philosophy of science, such as the demarcation of science from non-science, induction, confirmation and falsification, the relationship between theory and observation and relativism are all addressed. Important and complex current debates over underdetermination, inference to the best explaination and the implications of radical theory change are clarified and clearly explained for those new to the subject. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Scientific Papers and Presentations Martha Davis, 2004-10-09 Electronic publishing and electronic means of text and data presentation have changed enormously since the first edition was first published in 1997. This second edition applies traditional principles to today's, modern techniques. In addition to substantial changes on the poster presentations and visual aids chapters, the chapter on proposal writing discusses in more detail grant writing proposals. A new chapter has also been dedicated to international students studying in the United States.Selected Contents:-Searching and Reviewing Scientific Literature-The Graduate Thesis-Publishing in Scientific Journals-Reviewing and Revising-Titles and Abstracts-Ethical and Legal Issues-Scientific Presentations-Communication without words-The Oral Presentation-Poster Presentations |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Focus Groups for the Social Science Researcher Jennifer Cyr, 2019-03-28 In highlighting the unique features of focus groups, Cyr explains how they can help social science researchers effectively answer certain research questions. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Inquiry and the National Science Education Standards National Research Council, Center for Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Education, Committee on Development of an Addendum to the National Science Education Standards on Scientific Inquiry, 2000-05-03 Humans, especially children, are naturally curious. Yet, people often balk at the thought of learning scienceâ€the eyes glazed over syndrome. Teachers may find teaching science a major challenge in an era when science ranges from the hardly imaginable quark to the distant, blazing quasar. Inquiry and the National Science Education Standards is the book that educators have been waiting forâ€a practical guide to teaching inquiry and teaching through inquiry, as recommended by the National Science Education Standards. This will be an important resource for educators who must help school boards, parents, and teachers understand why we can't teach the way we used to. Inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and in which students grasp science knowledge and the methods by which that knowledge is produced. This book explains and illustrates how inquiry helps students learn science content, master how to do science, and understand the nature of science. This book explores the dimensions of teaching and learning science as inquiry for K-12 students across a range of science topics. Detailed examples help clarify when teachers should use the inquiry-based approach and how much structure, guidance, and coaching they should provide. The book dispels myths that may have discouraged educators from the inquiry-based approach and illuminates the subtle interplay between concepts, processes, and science as it is experienced in the classroom. Inquiry and the National Science Education Standards shows how to bring the standards to life, with features such as classroom vignettes exploring different kinds of inquiries for elementary, middle, and high school and Frequently Asked Questions for teachers, responding to common concerns such as obtaining teaching supplies. Turning to assessment, the committee discusses why assessment is important, looks at existing schemes and formats, and addresses how to involve students in assessing their own learning achievements. In addition, this book discusses administrative assistance, communication with parents, appropriate teacher evaluation, and other avenues to promoting and supporting this new teaching paradigm. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Trust and Confidence at the Interfaces of the Life Sciences and Society National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, Board on Science Education, Division on Earth and Life Studies, Board on Life Sciences, Roundtable on Public Interfaces of the Life Sciences, 2015-09-23 Does the public trust science? Scientists? Scientific organizations? What roles do trust and the lack of trust play in public debates about how science can be used to address such societal concerns as childhood vaccination, cancer screening, and a warming planet? What could happen if social trust in science or scientists faded? These types of questions led the Roundtable on Public Interfaces of the Life Sciences of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine to convene a 2-day workshop on May 5-6, 2015 on public trust in science. This report explores empirical evidence on public opinion and attitudes toward life sciences as they relate to societal issues, whether and how contentious debate about select life science topics mediates trust, and the roles that scientists, business, media, community groups, and other stakeholders play in creating and maintaining public confidence in life sciences. Does the Public Trust Science? Trust and Confidence at the Interfaces of the Life Sciences and Society highlights research on the elements of trust and how to build, mend, or maintain trust; and examine best practices in the context of scientist engagement with lay audiences around social issues. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: An Instinct for Truth Robert T. Pennock, 2019-08-13 An exploration of the scientific mindset—such character virtues as curiosity, veracity, attentiveness, and humility to evidence—and its importance for science, democracy, and human flourishing. Exemplary scientists have a characteristic way of viewing the world and their work: their mindset and methods all aim at discovering truths about nature. In An Instinct for Truth, Robert Pennock explores this scientific mindset and argues that what Charles Darwin called “an instinct for truth, knowledge, and discovery” has a tacit moral structure—that it is important not only for scientific excellence and integrity but also for democracy and human flourishing. In an era of “post-truth,” the scientific drive to discover empirical truths has a special value. Taking a virtue-theoretic perspective, Pennock explores curiosity, veracity, skepticism, humility to evidence, and other scientific virtues and vices. He explains that curiosity is the most distinctive element of the scientific character, by which other norms are shaped; discusses the passionate nature of scientific attentiveness; and calls for science education not only to teach scientific findings and methods but also to nurture the scientific mindset and its core values. Drawing on historical sources as well as a sociological study of more than a thousand scientists, Pennock's philosophical account is grounded in values that scientists themselves recognize they should aspire to. Pennock argues that epistemic and ethical values are normatively interconnected, and that for science and society to flourish, we need not just a philosophy of science, but a philosophy of the scientist. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Current Debates in Philosophy of Science Cristián Soto, 2023-08-28 This volume collects previously unpublished contributions to the philosophy of science. What brings them together is a twofold goal: first and foremost, celebrating the name of Roberto Torretti, whose works in this and other areas have had –and continue to have– a significant impact on the international philosophy of science community; and second, the desire of advancing novel perspectives on various issues in the philosophy of science broadly construed. Roberto Torretti has made substantial contributions to current debates in the history and philosophy of science, the general philosophy of science, and the philosophy of physics and geometry. Among his landmark contributions, we find his investigations in the history and philosophy of geometry, as well as his systematic studies of Einstein's relativity theory. This volume convenes leading philosophers and early-career scholars compiling a fine collection of chapters addressing recent debates on Kantian philosophy of science, the general philosophy of science, and the history and philosophy of physics and mathematics. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Why People Believe Weird Things Michael Shermer, 2011-02-01 A survey of a range of irrationalisms, with explanations of their empirical and logical flaws, this book describes the differences between science and pseudo-science, and goes on to describe and critique popular contemporary irrationalisms. Why do smart people believe weird things?Why do so many people believe in mind reading, past-life regression therapy, extra-terrestrial abduction and ghosts? What is behind the rise of 'scientific creationism' and Holocaust denial? In an age of supposed scientific enlightenment why do we appear more impressionable than ever?Scientific historian, and director of the Skeptics Society, Michael Shermer debunks these extraordinary claims in a no-holds-barred assault on the popular superstitions and confused prejudices of our time. Exploring the very human reasons behind otherworldly phenomena, conspiracy theories and cults Shermer explains why are they are so appealing to so many.Skepticism is the agent of reason against organized irrationalism -and is therefore one of the keys to human social and civic decency.Stephen Jay Gould, from his forewordShermer reveals the darker side of wishful thinking, through the recovered memory movement, satanic rituals and other modern witch hunts, and ideologies of racial superiority. Confronting those who take advantage of the gullibility of other people to advance their own, self-serving agendas Why People Believe Weird Things is compelling and often disturbing. It is a perceptive portrait of the human capacity for self-delusion and a celebration of the scientific spirit. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: The Demon-Haunted World Carl Sagan, 2011-07-06 A prescient warning of a future we now inhabit, where fake news stories and Internet conspiracy theories play to a disaffected American populace “A glorious book . . . A spirited defense of science . . . From the first page to the last, this book is a manifesto for clear thought.”—Los Angeles Times How can we make intelligent decisions about our increasingly technology-driven lives if we don’t understand the difference between the myths of pseudoscience and the testable hypotheses of science? Pulitzer Prize-winning author and distinguished astronomer Carl Sagan argues that scientific thinking is critical not only to the pursuit of truth but to the very well-being of our democratic institutions. Casting a wide net through history and culture, Sagan examines and authoritatively debunks such celebrated fallacies of the past as witchcraft, faith healing, demons, and UFOs. And yet, disturbingly, in today's so-called information age, pseudoscience is burgeoning with stories of alien abduction, channeling past lives, and communal hallucinations commanding growing attention and respect. As Sagan demonstrates with lucid eloquence, the siren song of unreason is not just a cultural wrong turn but a dangerous plunge into darkness that threatens our most basic freedoms. Praise for The Demon-Haunted World “Powerful . . . A stirring defense of informed rationality. . . Rich in surprising information and beautiful writing.”—The Washington Post Book World “Compelling.”—USA Today “A clear vision of what good science means and why it makes a difference. . . . A testimonial to the power of science and a warning of the dangers of unrestrained credulity.”—The Sciences “Passionate.”—San Francisco Examiner-Chronicle |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Psychology Gone Wrong Tomasz Witkowski, 2015-01-29 Psychology Gone Wrong: The Dark Sides of Science and Therapy explores the dark sides of psychology, the science that penetrates almost every area of our lives. It must be read by everyone who has an interest in psychology, by all those who are studying or intend to study psychology, and by present and potential clients of psychotherapists. This book will tell you which parts of psychology are supported by scientific evidence, and which parts are simply castles built on sand. This is the first book which comprehensively covers all mistakes, frauds and abuses of academic psychology, psychotherapy, and psycho-business. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Nietzsche and the Ancient Skeptical Tradition Jessica Berry, 2011 This work presents a portrait of Nietzsche as the skeptic par excellence in the modern period, by demonstrating how a careful and informed understanding of ancient Pyrrhonism illuminates his reflections on truth, knowledge and morality, as well as the very nature and value of philosophic inquiry. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: Scientific Research in Education National Research Council, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, Center for Education, Committee on Scientific Principles for Education Research, 2002-03-28 Researchers, historians, and philosophers of science have debated the nature of scientific research in education for more than 100 years. Recent enthusiasm for evidence-based policy and practice in educationâ€now codified in the federal law that authorizes the bulk of elementary and secondary education programsâ€have brought a new sense of urgency to understanding the ways in which the basic tenets of science manifest in the study of teaching, learning, and schooling. Scientific Research in Education describes the similarities and differences between scientific inquiry in education and scientific inquiry in other fields and disciplines and provides a number of examples to illustrate these ideas. Its main argument is that all scientific endeavors share a common set of principles, and that each fieldâ€including education researchâ€develops a specialization that accounts for the particulars of what is being studied. The book also provides suggestions for how the federal government can best support high-quality scientific research in education. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: The Chicago Guide to Communicating Science Scott L. Montgomery, 2017-02-21 This book is a comprehensive guide to scientific communication that has been used widely in courses and workshops as well as by individual scientists and other professionals since its first publication in 2002. This revision accounts for the many ways in which the globalization of research and the changing media landscape have altered scientific communication over the past decade. With an increased focus throughout on how research is communicated in industry, government, and non-profit centers as well as in academia, it now covers such topics as the opportunities and perils of online publishing, the need for translation skills, and the communication of scientific findings to the broader world, both directly through speaking and writing and through the filter of traditional and social media. It also offers advice for those whose research concerns controversial issues, such as climate change and emerging viruses, in which clear and accurate communication is especially critical to the scientific community and the wider world. |
| a skeptical attitude in science: U.S.-Latin American Cooperation in Science and Technology United States. Congress. House. Committee on Science, Space, and Technology. Subcommittee on International Scientific Cooperation, 1988 |
| a skeptical attitude in science: The Scientific Practice of Professional Psychology Steven J. Trierweiler, George Stricker, 2013-11-21 A workable vision of scientific practice has proven to be an elusive, if laudable, goal for professional psychology. The field cannot be faulted for failing to seek scientific wisdom, but it has been slow to integrate that wisdom fully with the wisdom of practice. This has proven to be a major oversight for, despite psychology's long if the standing commitment to science, practitioners are unlikely to think scientifically methods and products of science are described in ways that make it impossible to do so. Unfortunately, the rhetoric of science too often has done just that: So focused has it been on the problem of distinguishing good science from bad that it has inadvertently defeated any hope of a practical science developing in our field. We offer one remedy for this situation: This book is about scientific thinking for the professional psychologist. Specifically, it is a primer on the application of scientific logic to professional practice. We argue that the professional needs a more straightforward and realistic scientific identity than heretofore has been available. The professional consciously must become a local clinical scientist, bringing all the power of scientific thought to the specifics of the clinical situation. Contrary to forces in psychology that promote uncritical acceptance of science as given by academic researchers or, alternatively, that encourage criticism and ultimate disregard of the scientific endeavor, we call for a redoubling of efforts to incorporate scientific thought into practical professional inquiry. |
What is the right preposition after "skeptical"?
Sep 2, 2014 · You pose two different uses of the word and thought. In the one case a speaker is skeptical "of" a "truth" and in the later he is "posing" (in) skepticism as a position. One who is …
What is the difference between "skeptical" and "cynical"?
May 15, 2013 · As an example, in the sentence “John is skeptical about the motorway extension”, you could replace skeptical with cynical without altering the meaning. In the sentence “John is …
Why did "sceptical" become "skeptical" in the US?
Aug 4, 2011 · The earliest occurrence of sceptical (or skeptical) that I've been able to find in an English dictionary is in Edward Phillips, The New World of English Words, or a Generall …
single word requests - English Language & Usage Stack Exchange
Jun 22, 2019 · Stack Exchange Network. Stack Exchange network consists of 183 Q&A communities including Stack Overflow, the largest, most trusted online community for …
expressions - The phrase - "I remain sceptical" vs "I continue to ...
"I am skeptical" refers only to the present time and carries no implied information about my skepticism in the past, or any events that might have changed it. "continue to remain skeptical" …
Is there a word for someone who's skeptical only of statements …
Jan 3, 2017 · I think of a skeptic as one who thinks critically of whatever statement they encounter (looking for alternate explanations, questioning sources, etc.) Is there a different word for …
Terminology - What is the exact word to describe 'being skeptical …
You could consider the term scapegoater.. While this exact word does not appear to be listed in the stock online dicitonaries, it does appear in literature, beginning around 1910, and …
Meaning of "positively skeptical"? - English Language & Usage …
Jun 3, 2021 · I hope it works. I can't wait to see it and to try it. But until I do, I (remain) positively skeptical."' My question is, does/can "positively" convey any traces of the following: "I'm …
meaning - "Suspect" versus "Suspicious" as Adjectives - English ...
Feb 11, 2013 · Animate entities are often described as suspicious, but not really as suspect, to express that they have a skeptical, suspecting attitude. One could say that suspicious is more …
grammar - English Language & Usage Stack Exchange
May 6, 2017 · In your incompletely quoted sentence, the pair of linked adjectives 'skeptical but enlightened' work together to describe the noun 'intellectual' -- the meaning would be that 'the …
What is the right preposition after "skeptical"?
Sep 2, 2014 · You pose two different uses of the word and thought. In the one case a speaker is skeptical "of" a …
What is the difference between "skeptical" and "cynical"?
May 15, 2013 · As an example, in the sentence “John is skeptical about the motorway extension”, you could …
Why did "sceptical" become "skeptical" in the US?
Aug 4, 2011 · The earliest occurrence of sceptical (or skeptical) that I've been able to find in an English dictionary …
single word requests - English Language & Usage Stack Exch…
Jun 22, 2019 · Stack Exchange Network. Stack Exchange network consists of 183 Q&A communities including Stack …
expressions - The phrase - "I remain sceptical" vs "I contin…
"I am skeptical" refers only to the present time and carries no implied information about my skepticism in …
