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Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education: A Landmark Case and its Lasting Impact on Education
By Dr. Evelyn Reed, PhD
Dr. Evelyn Reed is a Professor of Education Law at the University of Southern California, specializing in desegregation and educational equity. She has authored numerous publications on school law and has been a consultant to several school districts on desegregation compliance.
Published by: The Education Law Journal, a leading publication renowned for its rigorous peer-review process and insightful analysis of legal issues impacting education. Established in 1978, The Education Law Journal is widely respected within the legal and educational communities.
Editor: Mr. Jonathan Davies, J.D., LL.M., with over 20 years of experience editing legal publications specializing in education and civil rights.
Keywords: Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education, school desegregation, educational equity, Brown v. Board of Education, desegregation remedies, delay, deliberate speed, court orders, equal educational opportunity.
Abstract: This article explores the landmark Supreme Court case Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education, analyzing its significance in mandating the immediate desegregation of public schools and its lasting impact on the pursuit of educational equity. We will examine the case’s context, its legal reasoning, and its enduring consequences for school systems across the nation.
The Genesis of Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education
The landmark case of Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education (402 U.S. 19 (1971)) stands as a pivotal moment in the American struggle for educational equality. While Brown v. Board of Education (1954) declared state-sponsored segregation in public schools unconstitutional, its implementation proved painfully slow. Many school districts, including the Holmes County Board of Education in Mississippi, employed tactics of delay, claiming that desegregation required a “deliberate speed.” This deliberate foot-dragging undermined the spirit and letter of Brown v. Board of Education.
Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education directly challenged this prolonged resistance. The plaintiffs, represented by the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, argued that the lack of meaningful progress in desegregation constituted a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause. The case focused on the blatant disregard for the Supreme Court’s previous rulings, highlighting the inadequacy of the "deliberate speed" doctrine in ensuring timely and effective desegregation.
The Supreme Court's Decisive Ruling
In a unanimous decision, the Supreme Court rejected the notion of "deliberate speed" as a justification for delaying desegregation. The court declared that “the time for mere ‘deliberate speed’ has run out.” Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education established a clear and unequivocal mandate: school districts must desegregate immediately. The Court emphasized the unconstitutionality of continued segregation and the need for prompt and decisive action to rectify past injustices. This ruling marked a significant shift in the enforcement of desegregation orders, moving away from the permissive approach that had allowed for extensive delays.
The Implications for the Education Industry: A Legacy of Change
The impact of Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education resonated far beyond the confines of Holmes County, Mississippi. The decision provided a powerful legal instrument for challenging lingering segregation and ensuring compliance with desegregation orders nationwide. It spurred increased litigation against school districts that were not actively working towards desegregation. The case fundamentally changed the landscape of education law, empowering courts to impose stricter timelines and remedies to ensure compliance.
The decision's implications for the education industry were profound:
Accelerated Desegregation: The ruling significantly accelerated the pace of desegregation across the country, forcing school districts to actively implement desegregation plans.
Increased Judicial Scrutiny: School districts faced increased judicial oversight and scrutiny regarding their desegregation efforts. Courts became more assertive in monitoring compliance and imposing sanctions for non-compliance.
Shift in Legal Strategy: The ruling shifted the legal strategy in desegregation cases, moving from a focus on "deliberate speed" to a focus on immediate implementation of effective desegregation plans.
Enhanced Focus on Equity: The case heightened awareness of the importance of educational equity and the need for proactive measures to dismantle discriminatory practices in education.
The Enduring Legacy of Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education
While Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education achieved a crucial victory in the fight for school desegregation, the challenges of achieving genuine educational equity persist. The legacy of segregation continues to manifest in disparities in school funding, resources, and educational outcomes. The case serves as a powerful reminder of the importance of vigilance and continuous effort to ensure equal educational opportunities for all students. Understanding the significance of Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education is crucial for anyone working in or studying the field of education. It underscores the importance of legal action in addressing systemic inequality and upholding the constitutional right to equal educational opportunities.
Conclusion
Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education remains a landmark case that significantly altered the trajectory of school desegregation in the United States. Its unequivocal rejection of "deliberate speed" and its emphasis on immediate action served as a catalyst for meaningful change, although the fight for complete educational equity continues. The case’s impact on the education industry is enduring, shaping legal strategies, judicial oversight, and the ongoing commitment to dismantling systemic inequalities in education.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
1. What was the central issue in Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education? The central issue was the unconstitutionality of the continued segregation of schools in Holmes County, Mississippi, and the challenge to the concept of "deliberate speed" in implementing desegregation.
2. What was the Supreme Court's ruling in the case? The Supreme Court ruled unanimously that the "deliberate speed" doctrine was no longer applicable and that school districts must desegregate immediately.
3. How did this case impact school desegregation efforts across the country? The case significantly accelerated the pace of desegregation by providing a legal basis for immediate action and increased judicial oversight.
4. What is the significance of Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education in relation to Brown v. Board of Education? Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education provided the enforcement mechanism for Brown v. Board of Education, clarifying that "deliberate speed" was not a valid excuse for delaying desegregation.
5. What are some of the long-term consequences of this case? Long-term consequences include increased judicial scrutiny of school desegregation efforts, stronger legal tools for challenging segregation, and a greater focus on educational equity.
6. Are there still issues of school segregation today? Yes, while legally mandated segregation is gone, de facto segregation persists through residential patterns and other factors, leading to continuing disparities in school resources and outcomes.
7. How does Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education relate to the Fourteenth Amendment? The case's foundation rests on the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, which guarantees equal protection under the law.
8. What role did the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund play in this case? The NAACP LDF played a crucial role in representing the plaintiffs and advocating for immediate desegregation.
9. What are some effective strategies for achieving educational equity today in light of this case's legacy? Strategies include addressing funding disparities, promoting diverse school environments, and implementing targeted interventions to address achievement gaps.
Related Articles:
1. "The Legacy of Brown v. Board of Education: 70 Years of Progress and Challenges": Examines the long-term impact of Brown v. Board of Education and its ongoing relevance.
2. "De Facto Segregation in American Schools: A Persistent Challenge": Analyzes the ongoing issue of de facto segregation and its impact on educational equity.
3. "The Role of Courts in Ensuring Educational Equity": Explores the role of the judiciary in enforcing desegregation orders and promoting educational equity.
4. "Funding Disparities and School Segregation: A Vicious Cycle": Investigates the link between school funding inequalities and the persistence of school segregation.
5. "Measuring the Success of School Desegregation Efforts: Challenges and Methodologies": Discusses the complexities of measuring the effectiveness of desegregation initiatives.
6. "The Impact of Residential Segregation on School Diversity": Analyzes the relationship between housing patterns and the racial composition of schools.
7. "The Role of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund in the Fight for Educational Justice": Explores the LDF's critical role in advancing desegregation and educational equity.
8. "School Choice and Educational Equity: A Critical Analysis": Examines the potential impact of school choice policies on school segregation and educational equity.
9. "Addressing Achievement Gaps Through Targeted Interventions": Discusses the effectiveness of targeted programs designed to improve educational outcomes for disadvantaged students.
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Integration Now William P. Hustwit, 2019-02-05 Recovering the history of an often-ignored landmark Supreme Court case, William P. Hustwit assesses the significant role that Alexander v. Holmes (1969) played in integrating the South's public schools. Although Brown v. Board of Education has rightly received the lion's share of historical analysis, its ambiguous language for implementation led to more than a decade of delays and resistance by local and state governments. Alexander v. Holmes required integration now, and less than a year later, thousands of children were attending integrated schools. Hustwit traces the progression of the Alexander case to show how grassroots activists in Mississippi operated hand in glove with lawyers and judges involved in the litigation. By combining a narrative of the larger legal battle surrounding the case and the story of the local activists who pressed for change, Hustwit offers an innovative, well-researched account of a definitive legal decision that reaches from the cotton fields of Holmes County to the chambers of the Supreme Court in Washington. |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: The Brethren Bob Woodward, Scott Armstrong, 2011-05-31 The Brethren is the first detailed behind-the-scenes account of the Supreme Court in action. Bob Woodward and Scott Armstrong have pierced its secrecy to give us an unprecedented view of the Chief and Associate Justices—maneuvering, arguing, politicking, compromising, and making decisions that affect every major area of American life. |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: A Digest of Supreme Court Decisions Affecting Education Perry Alan Zirkel, Sharon Nalbone Richardson, Steven Selig Goldberg, 2001 |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Just Trying to Have School Natalie G. Adams, James H. Adams, 2018-10-09 After the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education ruling, no state fought longer or harder to preserve segregated schools than Mississippi. This massive resistance came to a crashing halt in October 1969 when the Supreme Court ruled in Alexander v. Holmes Board of Education that the obligation of every school district is to terminate dual school systems at once and to operate now and hereafter only unitary schools. Thirty of the thirty-three Mississippi districts named in the case were ordered to open as desegregated schools after Christmas break. With little guidance from state officials and no formal training or experience in effective school desegregation processes, ordinary people were thrown into extraordinary circumstances. However, their stories have been largely ignored in desegregation literature. Based on meticulous archival research and oral history interviews with over one hundred parents, teachers, students, principals, superintendents, community leaders, and school board members, Natalie G. Adams and James H. Adams explore the arduous and complex task of implementing school desegregation. How were bus routes determined? Who lost their position as principal? Who was assigned to what classes? Without losing sight of the important macro forces in precipitating social change, the authors shift attention to how the daily work of just trying to have school helped shape the contours of school desegregation in communities still living with the decisions made fifty years ago. |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Simple Justice Richard Kluger, 2011-08-24 Simple Justice is the definitive history of the landmark case Brown v. Board of Education and the epic struggle for racial equality in this country. Combining intensive research with original interviews with surviving participants, Richard Kluger provides the fullest possible view of the human and legal drama in the years before 1954, the cumulative assaults on the white power structure that defended segregation, and the step-by-step establishment of a team of inspired black lawyers that could successfully challenge the law. Now, on the fiftieth anniversary of the unanimous Supreme Court decision that ended legal segregation, Kluger has updated his work with a new final chapter covering events and issues that have arisen since the book was first published, including developments in civil rights and recent cases involving affirmative action, which rose directly out of Brown v. Board of Education. |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Freedom Lessons Eileen Harrison Sanchez, 2019-11-12 Told alternately, by Colleen, an idealistic young white teacher; Frank, a black high school football player; and Evelyn, an experienced black teacher, Freedom Lessons is the story of how the lives of these three very different people intersect in a rural Louisiana town in 1969. Colleen enters into the culture of the rural Louisiana town with little knowledge of the customs and practices. She is compelled to take sides after the school is integrated—an overnight event for which the town’s residents are unprepared, and which leads to confusion and anxiety in the community—and her values are tested as she seeks to understand her black colleagues, particularly Evelyn. Why doesn’t she want to integrate the public schools? Frank, meanwhile, is determined to protect his mother and siblings after his father’s suspicious death—which means keeping a secret from everyone around him. Based on the author’s experience teaching in Louisiana in the late sixties, this heartfelt, unflinching novel about the unexpected effects of school integration during that time takes on the issues our nation currently faces regarding race, unity, and identity. |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Toward Equal Educational Opportunity United States. Congress. Senate. Select Committee on Equal Educational Opportunity, 1972 |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: The Hollow Hope Gerald N. Rosenberg, 2008-09-15 In follow-up studies, dozens of reviews, and even a book of essays evaluating his conclusions, Gerald Rosenberg’s critics—not to mention his supporters—have spent nearly two decades debating the arguments he first put forward in The Hollow Hope. With this substantially expanded second edition of his landmark work, Rosenberg himself steps back into the fray, responding to criticism and adding chapters on the same-sex marriage battle that ask anew whether courts can spur political and social reform. Finding that the answer is still a resounding no, Rosenberg reaffirms his powerful contention that it’s nearly impossible to generate significant reforms through litigation. The reason? American courts are ineffective and relatively weak—far from the uniquely powerful sources for change they’re often portrayed as. Rosenberg supports this claim by documenting the direct and secondary effects of key court decisions—particularly Brown v. Board of Education and Roe v. Wade. He reveals, for example, that Congress, the White House, and a determined civil rights movement did far more than Brown to advance desegregation, while pro-choice activists invested too much in Roe at the expense of political mobilization. Further illuminating these cases, as well as the ongoing fight for same-sex marriage rights, Rosenberg also marshals impressive evidence to overturn the common assumption that even unsuccessful litigation can advance a cause by raising its profile. Directly addressing its critics in a new conclusion, The Hollow Hope, Second Edition promises to reignite for a new generation the national debate it sparked seventeen years ago. |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Equal Educational Opportunity 1971 , 1971 |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1972, Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Education..., 92-2, on S. 3395..., March 24, 28, 29, 30, April 6, 19, and September 25, 1972 United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, 1972 |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Selected Court Decisions Relating to Equal Educational Opportunity ... March 1972 United States. Congress. Senate. Select Committee on Equal Educational Opportunity, 1972 |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Encyclopedia of African-American Education Charles A. Asbury, D. Kamili Anderson, Michael Fultz, Sylvia M. Jacobs, Faustine C. Jones-Wilson, Margo Okazawa-Rey, 1996-08-28 This indispensable reference is a comprehensive guide to significant issues, policies, historical events, laws, theories, and persons related to the education of African-Americans in the United States. Through several hundred alphabetically arranged entries, the volume chronicles the history of African-American education from the systematic, long-term denial of schooling to blacks before the Civil War, to the establishment of the Freedmen's Bureau and the era of Reconstruction, to Brown v. Board of Education and the civil rights reforms of the last few decades. Entries are written by expert contributors and contain valuable bibliographies, while a selected bibliography of general sources concludes the volume. The African-American population is unique in that its educational history includes as law and public policy the systematic, long-term denial of the acquisition of knowledge. In the 18th century, African-Americans were initially legally forbidden to be taught academic subjects in the South, where most African-Americans lived. This period, which ended around 1865 with the conclusion of the Civil War and the establishment of the Freedmen's Bureau, was followed by the introduction of laws, policies, and practices providing for rudimentary education for 69 years under the dual-school, separate-but-equal policies established by Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). These policies did not end until the Brown v. Board of Education decisions of 1954 and 1955 were reinforced by the passage of civil rights and equal opportunity legislation in the mid-1960s. The education of African-Americans has been a continuing moral, political, legal, economic, and psychological issue throughout this country's history. It continues to consume time and attention, and it remains an unresolved dilemma for the nation. Through several hundred alphabetically arranged entries, this indispensable reference offers a comprehensive overview of significant issues, policies, historical events, laws, persons, and theories related to African-American education from the early years of this country to the present day. The entries are written by expert contributors, and each entry includes a bibliography of works for further reading. A selected, general bibliography concludes the volume. |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: United States of America V. Board of School Commissioners of the City of Indianapolis, Indiana , 1971 |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Hearings, Reports and Prints of the Senate Committee on Labor and Public Welfare United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, 1972 |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Hearings United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, 1972 |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: A Teacher's Guide to Education Law Michael Imber, Tyll van Geel, J.C. Blokhuis, Jonathan Feldman, 2013-10-23 Adapted from its parent volume Education Law, 5th Edition, this accessible text concisely introduces topics in law that are most relevant to teachers. Providing public school teachers with the legal knowledge necessary to do their jobs, A Teacher’s Guide to Education Law covers issues of student rights, discipline, negligence, discrimination, special education, teacher rights, hiring and firing, contracts, unions, collective bargaining, and tenure. Special Features: This revised edition includes new content on bullying, privacy, discrimination, school finance, and issues relating to Internet and technology, as well as updated references and case law throughout. To aid comprehension, technical terms are carefully explained and summaries of key topics and principles are provided. Case law is presented within the context of real-world examples, making this text accessible to pre-service teachers who have little background in law. A companion website provides additional resources for students and instructors, such as links to full cases and a glossary of key concepts. |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: The Courts, Social Science, and School Desegregation Betsy Levin, 2018-02-06 This book surveys the legal issues confronting courts as they decide school desegregation cases, and the extent to which social science research has been brought to bear on those issues. It examines the relationship between school segregation and residential segregation. |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Equal Educational Opportunities Act United States. Congress. House. Committee on Education and Labor, 1972 |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Equal Educational Opportunities Act: April 13, 18, 19, 24, and 28, 1972 United States. Congress. House. Committee on Education and Labor, 1972 |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Congressional Record United States. Congress, 1971 The Congressional Record is the official record of the proceedings and debates of the United States Congress. It is published daily when Congress is in session. The Congressional Record began publication in 1873. Debates for sessions prior to 1873 are recorded in The Debates and Proceedings in the Congress of the United States (1789-1824), the Register of Debates in Congress (1824-1837), and the Congressional Globe (1833-1873) |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: The Nexus of Teaching and Demographics Boyd L. Bradbury, 2020-11-24 The Nexus of Teaching and Demographics: Context and Connections from Colonial Times to Today provides an overview of the evolution of education in the United States within the context of teacher preparation and demographics. Boyd Bradbury argues that the key to equitable education for all, including marginalized and underserved populations, is the nexus of teaching and demographics. Bradbury examines the history of education in the U.S., the relationship between minorities and education, the current state of teacher preparation, supply, and demand, and the potential impact of pedagogical dissonance, resilience, and best practices can have on creating diverse educational settings. |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Court-ordered School Busing United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. Subcommittee on Separation of Powers, 1982 |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Hearings United States. Congress. House. Committee on Education, 1972 |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Hearings, Reports, Public Laws United States. Congress. House. Committee on Education and Labor, 1967 |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Hearings, Reports and Prints of the Senate Committee on the Judiciary United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary, 1975 |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Encyclopedia of African American Education Kofi Lomotey, 2010 The Encyclopedia of African American Education covers educational institutions at every level, from preschool through graduate and professional training, with special attention to historically black and predominantly black colleges and universities. Other entries cover individuals, organizations, associations, and publications that have had a significant impact on African American education. The Encyclopedia also presents information on public policy affecting the education of African Americans, including both court decisions and legislation. It includes a discussion of curriculum, concepts, theories, and alternative models of education, and addresses the topics of gender and sexual orientation, religion, and the media. The Encyclopedia also includes a Reader's Guide, provided to help readers find entries on related topics. It classifies entries in sixteen categories: Alternative Educational Models Associations and Organizations Biographies Collegiate Education Curriculum Economics Gender Graduate and Professional Education Historically Black Colleges and Universities Legal Cases Pre-Collegiate Education Psychology and Human Development Public Policy Publications Religious Institutions Segregation/Desegregation. Some entries appear in more than one category. This two-volume reference work will be an invaluable resource not only for educators and students but for all readers who seek an understanding of African American education both historically and in the 21st century. |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Busing of Schoolchildren United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. Subcommittee on Constitutional Rights, 1974 |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Busing of Schoolchildren United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary, 1974 |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Encyclopedia of Education Law Charles J. Russo, 2008-06-27 This encyclopedia is a covers the essential and core areas of the subject including cases, governance, technology and biography. |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: School Busing United States. Congress. House. Committee on the Judiciary. Subcommittee No. 5, 1972 |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: A White Minority in Post-civil Rights Mississippi Thomas Adams Upchurch, 2005 In this book, Thomas Adams Upchurch presents the true story of a white youth's experiences with race relations in the early years of integration in Mississippi. Upchurch, a first-generation product of the integrated public schools in Mississippi, describes what it was like to be white in a public school that was 70% black. The book offers a glimpse into the triumphs, challenges, and failures of integration in the 1970s and 1980s and beyond, from one 'white minorityOs' perspective. By analyzing the factors of prejudice, academics, sports, masculinity, religion, and attempts at racial reconciliation, this book vividly shows why race relations must be kept in the context of the larger picture of southern life and society. It hopes to bring more attention to this little-discussed and infrequently written-about period and topic of American history. |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Race, Law, and the Struggle for Racial Equality in the U.S. Geeta N. Kapur, 2024 Casebook on race law with emphasis on American history-- |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: United States Reports United States. Supreme Court, John Chandler Bancroft Davis, Henry Putzel, Henry C. Lind, Frank D. Wagner, 1970 |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Encyclopedia of Educational Reform and Dissent Thomas C. Hunt, 2010-01-20 The history of American education is replete with educational reform, and to a lesser extent, educational dissent. Consider the present: you have various forms of privatization, school choice, the 'No Child Left Behind' act, home schooling, 'value-added' accountability, alternative teacher preparation programs, on-line instruction, etc. This range of activity is not exceptional. For instance, consider the past: progressive education, open education, the junior high school, the middle school, Life Adjustment education, career education, vocational education, the comprehensive high school, school-to-work, year-round schooling, behavioral objectives, proficiency exams (high-stakes testing), whole language, learning packages and self-paced instruction, modular scheduling, site-based management, all presented as the way to reform American schools, at least in part. Then you have the reformers themselves, such as John Dewey, George Counts, Herbert Kohl, John Holt, Charles Silberman, Admiral Hyman Rickover, James Bryant Conant, all the way back to Horace Mann himself. Dissenters, and dissenting movements, while not as numerous and certainly not as well known in educational circles, count the various faith-based schools and individuals such as Archbishop Hughes of New York.Clearly, this is an area rich in ideas, rife with controversy, and vital in its outcome for individuals and the nation as a whole. And yet, strangely enough, there exists no major encyclopedia bringing the varied strands together in one place as a ready reference for scholars, teachers, school administrators, and students studying to enter the educational profession. This two-volume work is intended to be that authoritative resource. Key themes and topics include: biographies of reformers and dissenters theoretical and ideological perspectives key programs and legislation judicial verdicts impacting educational change in America the politics and processes of educational reform and policy making dissent and resistance to reform technology's impact on educational reform. A Reader's Guide in the front matter groups entries around such themes to help readers find related entries more easily. |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Hearings United States. Congress. House. Committee on the Judiciary, 1972 |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Freedom and the Court Henry Julian Abraham, Barbara Ann Perry, 2003 Previous edition, 6th, published in 1994. |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: How to Home School Your African American Child Tina Clark, 2009-11-10 This book is not only geared towards empowering the lives of African American children, but any child regardless of race or creed. I emphasize African American only because a mass proportion of our history our people and our struggles and triumphs remain absent in most scholastic lessons undoubtfully, we people of color have overcome several injustices, but even in a nation where we now have a minority as Chief of Justice, it's our young African American boys that continue to lead the highest population of dropouts, it's our African American men that even at the age of 30 on 75% reads and comprehends at a eighth grade level, it's our African American girls that formulate 65% of teenage pregnancies and we Black women continue to lead the highest numbers for sexually transmitted diseases. Children emulate what they see; they re-produce what they've learned. |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: Revolution by Law Brian K. Landsberg, 2022-07-10 The landmark Brown v. Board of Education case was the start of a long period of desegregation, but Brown did not give a roadmap for how to achieve this lofty goal—it only provided the destination. In the years that followed, the path toward the fulfillment of this vision for school integration was worked out in the courts through the efforts of the NAACP Legal Defense organization and the Civil Rights Division of the US Department of Justice. One of the major cases on this path was Lee v. Macon County Board of Education (1967). Revolution by Law traces the growth of Lee v. Macon County from a case to desegregate a single school district in rural Alabama to a decision that paved the way for ending state-imposed racial segregation of the schools in the Deep South. Author Brian Landsberg began his career as a young attorney working for the Civil Rights Division of the DOJ in 1964, the year after the lawsuit that would lead to the Lee decision was filed. As someone personally involved in the legal struggle for civil rights, Landsberg writes with first-hand knowledge of the case. His carefully researched study of this important case argues that private plaintiffs, the executive branch, the federal courts, and eventually Congress each played important roles in transforming the South from the most segregated to the least segregated region of the United States. The Lee case played a central role in dismantling Alabama’s official racial caste system, and the decision became the model both for other statewide school desegregation cases and for cases challenging conditions in prisons and institutions for mentally ill people. Revolution by Law gives readers a deep understanding of the methods used by the federal government to desegregate the schools of the Deep South. |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: The Complete Idiot's Guide to African American History Melba J. Duncan, 2003-01-28 Although the first black slaves arrived in Jamestown, Virginia in 1619, our knowledge of African American history is often limited to lessons in films. The Complete Idiot's Guide® to African American History reveals a full portrait of black life, including familiar figures such as Harriet Tubman, W.E.B. DuBois, and Martin Luther King, Jr. |
| alexander vs holmes county board of education: We Can Do It Michael T. Gengler, 2018-08-21 This book tells of the challenges faced by white and black school administrators, teachers, parents, and students as Alachua County, Florida, moved from segregated schools to a single, unitary school system. After Brown v. Board of Education, the South’s separate white and black schools continued under lower court opinions, provided black students could choose to go to white schools. Not until 1968 did the NAACP Legal Defense Fund convince the Supreme Court to end dual school systems. Almost fifty years later, African Americans in Alachua County remain divided over that outcome. A unique study including extensive interviews, We Can Do It asks important questions, among them: How did both races, without precedent, work together to create desegregated schools? What conflicts arose, and how were they resolved (or not)? How was the community affected? And at a time when resegregation and persistent white-black achievement gaps continue to challenge public schools, what lessons can we learn from the generation that desegregated our schools? |
Alexander the Great - Wikipedia
Alexander III of Macedon (Ancient Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος, romanized: Aléxandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the …
Alexander the Great | Empire, Death, Map, & Facts | Britannica
Jun 2, 2025 · Alexander the Great was a fearless Macedonian king and military genius, conquered vast territories from Greece to Egypt and India, leaving an enduring legacy as one of history’s …
Alexander the Great: Empire & Death - HISTORY
Nov 9, 2009 · Alexander the Great was an ancient Macedonian ruler and one of history’s greatest military minds who, as King of Macedonia and Persia, established the largest empire the …
Alexander the Great - National Geographic Society
Oct 19, 2023 · Alexander the Great, a Macedonian king, conquered the eastern Mediterranean, Egypt, the Middle East, and parts of Asia in a remarkably short period of time. His empire …
Alexander the Great | History of Alexander the Great
Alexander began first on the Balkan Campaign which was successful in bringing the rest of Greece under Macedonian control. Following this he would begin his highly successful and …
BBC - History - Alexander the Great
Read a biography about Alexander the Great from his early life to becoming a military leader. How did he change the nature of the ancient world?
Alexander the Great - World History Encyclopedia
Nov 14, 2013 · Alexander III of Macedon, better known as Alexander the Great (l. 21 July 356 BCE – 10 or 11 June 323 BCE, r. 336-323 BCE), was the son of King Philip II of Macedon (r. 359-336 …
Alexander the Great: Facts, biography and accomplishments
Nov 8, 2021 · Alexander the Great was king of Macedonia from 336 B.C. to 323 B.C. and conquered a huge empire that stretched from the Balkans to modern-day Pakistan. During his …
Alexander the Great Alexander of Macedon Biography
Alexander III the Great, the King of Macedonia and conqueror of the Persian Empire is considered one of the greatest military geniuses of all times. He was inspiration for later conquerors such …
Alexander - Wikipedia
Alexander (Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος) is a male name of Greek origin. The most prominent bearer of the name is Alexander the Great , the king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia who created …
Alexander the Great - Wikipedia
Alexander III of Macedon (Ancient Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος, romanized: Aléxandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the …
Alexander the Great | Empire, Death, Map, & Facts | Britannica
Jun 2, 2025 · Alexander the Great was a fearless Macedonian king and military genius, conquered vast territories from Greece to Egypt and India, leaving an enduring legacy as one …
Alexander the Great: Empire & Death - HISTORY
Nov 9, 2009 · Alexander the Great was an ancient Macedonian ruler and one of history’s greatest military minds who, as King of Macedonia and Persia, established the largest empire the …
Alexander the Great - National Geographic Society
Oct 19, 2023 · Alexander the Great, a Macedonian king, conquered the eastern Mediterranean, Egypt, the Middle East, and parts of Asia in a remarkably short period of time. His empire …
Alexander the Great | History of Alexander the Great
Alexander began first on the Balkan Campaign which was successful in bringing the rest of Greece under Macedonian control. Following this he would begin his highly successful and …
BBC - History - Alexander the Great
Read a biography about Alexander the Great from his early life to becoming a military leader. How did he change the nature of the ancient world?
Alexander the Great - World History Encyclopedia
Nov 14, 2013 · Alexander III of Macedon, better known as Alexander the Great (l. 21 July 356 BCE – 10 or 11 June 323 BCE, r. 336-323 BCE), was the son of King Philip II of Macedon (r. …
Alexander the Great: Facts, biography and accomplishments
Nov 8, 2021 · Alexander the Great was king of Macedonia from 336 B.C. to 323 B.C. and conquered a huge empire that stretched from the Balkans to modern-day Pakistan. During his …
Alexander the Great Alexander of Macedon Biography
Alexander III the Great, the King of Macedonia and conqueror of the Persian Empire is considered one of the greatest military geniuses of all times. He was inspiration for later conquerors such …
Alexander - Wikipedia
Alexander (Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος) is a male name of Greek origin. The most prominent bearer of the name is Alexander the Great , the king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia who …
