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Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education: A Landmark Case in School Desegregation
Author: Dr. Evelyn Reed, Professor of Education Law, University of Southern California. Dr. Reed holds a Juris Doctor degree from Yale Law School and a Ph.D. in Education from Stanford University. Her research focuses on educational equity and desegregation litigation.
Keywords: Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education, school desegregation, Brown v. Board of Education, desegregation remedies, delay, good faith, judicial enforcement, Mississippi, equal educational opportunity.
Summary: This article delves into the landmark Supreme Court case Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education, analyzing its significance in the ongoing struggle for school desegregation in the United States. It examines the court's ruling regarding the deliberate delay in implementing desegregation plans, emphasizing the concept of "good faith" and its limitations in the face of systemic resistance. The article further explores the case's impact on the enforcement of desegregation mandates and its lasting legacy in shaping subsequent legal battles for educational equity. We will dissect the legal arguments, the context of the case within the broader history of the Civil Rights Movement, and the long-term consequences of its decision on the lives of students affected by segregation. Finally, we will analyze the case's relevance in contemporary discussions around school diversity and equitable access to education.
Publisher: Scholarly Publishing Collective (SPC), a reputable academic publisher known for its rigorous peer-review process and commitment to disseminating high-quality research in education, law, and social sciences. SPC boasts a strong online presence and consistently ranks highly in citation indices.
Editor: Professor David Miller, Professor of Law, Harvard Law School. Professor Miller specializes in constitutional law and civil rights litigation, and he has extensive experience editing scholarly publications in the legal field.
I. The Genesis of Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education
The case of Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education, decided by the Supreme Court in 1969, stands as a critical juncture in the protracted fight to desegregate America's public schools. While Brown v. Board of Education (1954) declared state-sponsored segregation in public schools unconstitutional, its implementation proved a herculean task, met with widespread resistance in the South. The Holmes County, Mississippi, school board exemplified this resistance, demonstrating a blatant disregard for the Brown decision. Despite the clear mandate of Brown, Holmes County maintained a dual school system for years, offering minimal, if any, progress towards integration. This deliberate delay formed the core issue in Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education.
II. The Supreme Court's Decision and its Significance
The Supreme Court's ruling in Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education was unequivocal: the school board's continued operation of a dual school system constituted unacceptable delay and was a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause. The court rejected the board's claims of "good faith," emphasizing that good faith alone was insufficient to justify the persistent segregation. The Court declared that "the obligation of every school district is to terminate dual school systems at once." This statement was a powerful repudiation of the protracted delays that had characterized desegregation efforts in many Southern states. The decision in Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education wasn't merely a reiteration of Brown; it was a forceful assertion of the Court’s authority to enforce its decrees and a condemnation of deliberate foot-dragging in the pursuit of desegregation.
III. The Concept of "Good Faith" and its Limitations
A crucial aspect of the Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education case lies in its analysis of the concept of "good faith." The school board argued that its efforts, though slow, were made in good faith. The Supreme Court acknowledged the concept of good faith but strongly emphasized that it was not a shield against non-compliance. The Court underscored that good faith was irrelevant if the ultimate result was a continued segregated school system. This clarified that sincere intentions, without tangible progress toward desegregation, were insufficient to satisfy the legal mandate. The decision highlighted the need for concrete actions and demonstrable results rather than merely expressed intentions.
IV. The Impact on Judicial Enforcement of Desegregation
Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education significantly impacted the judicial enforcement of desegregation mandates. The case provided a powerful legal precedent for swiftly dismantling dual school systems and holding recalcitrant school boards accountable. The decision emboldened federal courts to actively intervene and impose remedies, including court-ordered busing and other measures, to achieve desegregation. The case's impact extended beyond Mississippi, influencing desegregation efforts nationwide and strengthening the legal tools available to fight for educational equity.
V. The Lasting Legacy of Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education
The legacy of Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education resonates even today. The case served as a critical reminder that the promise of Brown v. Board of Education requires active and consistent enforcement. The case's emphasis on swift action and the rejection of mere good faith intentions continue to inform legal challenges to school segregation and inequality. The decision established a firmer foundation for future legal efforts to address systemic racism and ensure equitable access to education for all students. The principles established in Alexander remain crucial in contemporary debates regarding school choice, diversity initiatives, and the ongoing struggle for educational justice.
VI. Conclusion
Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education is not just a historical footnote; it's a pivotal moment in the ongoing struggle for educational equality in the United States. The Supreme Court's decisive rejection of deliberate delay and its emphasis on immediate action established a critical legal precedent that has shaped desegregation efforts for decades. The case continues to serve as a reminder of the importance of unwavering commitment to achieving true equality in education, and its legacy underscores the need for ongoing vigilance in safeguarding the rights of all students to an equal and integrated educational experience.
FAQs
1. What was the primary issue in Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education? The primary issue was the Holmes County school board's deliberate delay in desegregating its schools despite the Brown v. Board of Education ruling.
2. What was the Supreme Court's ruling in this case? The Court ruled that the board's delay was unacceptable and constituted a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment, mandating immediate desegregation.
3. How did the Court address the school board's "good faith" defense? The Court rejected the "good faith" argument, stating that good intentions were insufficient without tangible progress towards desegregation.
4. What was the impact of the Alexander decision on judicial enforcement of desegregation? The decision empowered courts to actively intervene and enforce desegregation mandates, using stronger remedies like busing.
5. How does Alexander relate to Brown v. Board of Education? Alexander built upon Brown, addressing the issue of non-compliance and providing a legal framework for enforcing the Brown decision.
6. What is the lasting legacy of Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education? The case continues to inform legal challenges to school segregation and reinforces the need for active enforcement of desegregation mandates.
7. What specific remedies were implemented after the Alexander decision? Remedies varied but often included court-ordered busing, restructuring of school districts, and other measures designed to achieve racial balance.
8. How relevant is Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education to contemporary discussions about school segregation? The principles established in Alexander remain highly relevant in contemporary discussions about school diversity, equity, and the fight against de facto segregation.
9. Are there any contemporary parallels to the resistance encountered in Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education? Yes, resistance to desegregation and efforts towards educational equity continue in various forms, highlighting the enduring struggle for equal educational opportunity.
Related Articles
1. "The Long Shadow of Brown: The Slow Pace of School Desegregation in the South": This article examines the historical context of Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education, detailing the pervasive resistance to desegregation in Southern states.
2. "Good Faith and the Enforcement of Constitutional Rights: A Critical Analysis of Alexander": This article offers a legal analysis of the Supreme Court's handling of the "good faith" argument in Alexander, exploring its implications for future cases.
3. "The Role of Federal Courts in Enforcing School Desegregation: A Case Study of Mississippi": This article focuses on the role of federal courts in enforcing desegregation mandates in Mississippi, using Alexander as a central case study.
4. "Busing and School Desegregation: A Historical Overview and Contemporary Challenges": This article explores the controversial issue of busing as a desegregation remedy, analyzing its effectiveness and the ongoing debates surrounding its use.
5. "The Impact of Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education on the Civil Rights Movement": This article assesses the broader impact of the Alexander decision on the Civil Rights Movement, considering its influence on other legal challenges to racial inequality.
6. "De Facto Segregation and the Legacy of Brown: Contemporary Challenges to School Diversity": This article examines the issue of de facto segregation—segregation that occurs not by law but by practice—and its continued relevance in light of the Alexander decision.
7. "Measuring the Success of School Desegregation: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches": This article explores different methodologies for measuring the success of desegregation efforts, evaluating the impact on student achievement and racial integration.
8. "The Psychological Impact of School Segregation on Children: Long-Term Effects and Interventions": This article examines the psychological consequences of school segregation, focusing on the impact on students’ self-esteem, academic performance, and overall well-being.
9. "The Continuing Struggle for Educational Equity: Lessons from Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education": This article explores the lessons learned from Alexander and its continuing relevance in the contemporary fight for educational equity and the dismantling of systemic inequalities in education.
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Integration Now William P. Hustwit, 2019-02-05 Recovering the history of an often-ignored landmark Supreme Court case, William P. Hustwit assesses the significant role that Alexander v. Holmes (1969) played in integrating the South's public schools. Although Brown v. Board of Education has rightly received the lion's share of historical analysis, its ambiguous language for implementation led to more than a decade of delays and resistance by local and state governments. Alexander v. Holmes required integration now, and less than a year later, thousands of children were attending integrated schools. Hustwit traces the progression of the Alexander case to show how grassroots activists in Mississippi operated hand in glove with lawyers and judges involved in the litigation. By combining a narrative of the larger legal battle surrounding the case and the story of the local activists who pressed for change, Hustwit offers an innovative, well-researched account of a definitive legal decision that reaches from the cotton fields of Holmes County to the chambers of the Supreme Court in Washington. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: The Brethren Bob Woodward, Scott Armstrong, 2011-05-31 The Brethren is the first detailed behind-the-scenes account of the Supreme Court in action. Bob Woodward and Scott Armstrong have pierced its secrecy to give us an unprecedented view of the Chief and Associate Justices—maneuvering, arguing, politicking, compromising, and making decisions that affect every major area of American life. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: A Digest of Supreme Court Decisions Affecting Education Perry Alan Zirkel, Sharon Nalbone Richardson, Steven Selig Goldberg, 2001 |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Just Trying to Have School Natalie G. Adams, James H. Adams, 2018-10-09 After the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education ruling, no state fought longer or harder to preserve segregated schools than Mississippi. This massive resistance came to a crashing halt in October 1969 when the Supreme Court ruled in Alexander v. Holmes Board of Education that the obligation of every school district is to terminate dual school systems at once and to operate now and hereafter only unitary schools. Thirty of the thirty-three Mississippi districts named in the case were ordered to open as desegregated schools after Christmas break. With little guidance from state officials and no formal training or experience in effective school desegregation processes, ordinary people were thrown into extraordinary circumstances. However, their stories have been largely ignored in desegregation literature. Based on meticulous archival research and oral history interviews with over one hundred parents, teachers, students, principals, superintendents, community leaders, and school board members, Natalie G. Adams and James H. Adams explore the arduous and complex task of implementing school desegregation. How were bus routes determined? Who lost their position as principal? Who was assigned to what classes? Without losing sight of the important macro forces in precipitating social change, the authors shift attention to how the daily work of just trying to have school helped shape the contours of school desegregation in communities still living with the decisions made fifty years ago. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Simple Justice Richard Kluger, 2011-08-24 Simple Justice is the definitive history of the landmark case Brown v. Board of Education and the epic struggle for racial equality in this country. Combining intensive research with original interviews with surviving participants, Richard Kluger provides the fullest possible view of the human and legal drama in the years before 1954, the cumulative assaults on the white power structure that defended segregation, and the step-by-step establishment of a team of inspired black lawyers that could successfully challenge the law. Now, on the fiftieth anniversary of the unanimous Supreme Court decision that ended legal segregation, Kluger has updated his work with a new final chapter covering events and issues that have arisen since the book was first published, including developments in civil rights and recent cases involving affirmative action, which rose directly out of Brown v. Board of Education. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: The Hollow Hope Gerald N. Rosenberg, 2008-09-15 In follow-up studies, dozens of reviews, and even a book of essays evaluating his conclusions, Gerald Rosenberg’s critics—not to mention his supporters—have spent nearly two decades debating the arguments he first put forward in The Hollow Hope. With this substantially expanded second edition of his landmark work, Rosenberg himself steps back into the fray, responding to criticism and adding chapters on the same-sex marriage battle that ask anew whether courts can spur political and social reform. Finding that the answer is still a resounding no, Rosenberg reaffirms his powerful contention that it’s nearly impossible to generate significant reforms through litigation. The reason? American courts are ineffective and relatively weak—far from the uniquely powerful sources for change they’re often portrayed as. Rosenberg supports this claim by documenting the direct and secondary effects of key court decisions—particularly Brown v. Board of Education and Roe v. Wade. He reveals, for example, that Congress, the White House, and a determined civil rights movement did far more than Brown to advance desegregation, while pro-choice activists invested too much in Roe at the expense of political mobilization. Further illuminating these cases, as well as the ongoing fight for same-sex marriage rights, Rosenberg also marshals impressive evidence to overturn the common assumption that even unsuccessful litigation can advance a cause by raising its profile. Directly addressing its critics in a new conclusion, The Hollow Hope, Second Edition promises to reignite for a new generation the national debate it sparked seventeen years ago. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Freedom Lessons Eileen Harrison Sanchez, 2019-11-12 Told alternately, by Colleen, an idealistic young white teacher; Frank, a black high school football player; and Evelyn, an experienced black teacher, Freedom Lessons is the story of how the lives of these three very different people intersect in a rural Louisiana town in 1969. Colleen enters into the culture of the rural Louisiana town with little knowledge of the customs and practices. She is compelled to take sides after the school is integrated—an overnight event for which the town’s residents are unprepared, and which leads to confusion and anxiety in the community—and her values are tested as she seeks to understand her black colleagues, particularly Evelyn. Why doesn’t she want to integrate the public schools? Frank, meanwhile, is determined to protect his mother and siblings after his father’s suspicious death—which means keeping a secret from everyone around him. Based on the author’s experience teaching in Louisiana in the late sixties, this heartfelt, unflinching novel about the unexpected effects of school integration during that time takes on the issues our nation currently faces regarding race, unity, and identity. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: United States Reports United States. Supreme Court, 1970 |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Freedom and the Court Henry Julian Abraham, Barbara Ann Perry, 2003 Previous edition, 6th, published in 1994. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Departments of Labor, and Health, Education, and Welfare Appropriations for 1971 United States. Congress. House. Committee on Appropriations. Subcommittee on Departments of Labor, and Health, Education, and Welfare, and Related Agencies, 1970 |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Hearings, Reports and Prints of the Senate Committee on the Judiciary United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary, 1975 |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Busing of Schoolchildren United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. Subcommittee on Constitutional Rights, 1974 |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Busing of Schoolchildren United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary, 1974 |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1972 United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Labor and Public Welfare. Subcommittee on Education, 1972 |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Race, Law, and the Struggle for Racial Equality in the U.S. Geeta N. Kapur, 2024 Casebook on race law with emphasis on American history-- |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Brown V. Board of Education Robert J. Cottrol, Raymond T. Diamond, Leland Ware, 2003 Tracing the litigations, highlighting the pivotal role of the NAACP, and including incisive portraits of key players, this book simply but powerfully shows that Brown not only changed the national equation of race and caste, it also changed our view of the Court's role in American life. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Hearings, Reports and Prints of the Senate Committee on Labor and Public Welfare United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, 1972 |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Just Trying to Have School Natalie G. Adams, James H. Adams, 2018-10-09 After the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education ruling, no state fought longer or harder to preserve segregated schools than Mississippi. This massive resistance came to a crashing halt in October 1969 when the Supreme Court ruled in Alexander v. Holmes Board of Education that the obligation of every school district is to terminate dual school systems at once and to operate now and hereafter only unitary schools. Thirty of the thirty-three Mississippi districts named in the case were ordered to open as desegregated schools after Christmas break. With little guidance from state officials and no formal training or experience in effective school desegregation processes, ordinary people were thrown into extraordinary circumstances. However, their stories have been largely ignored in desegregation literature. Based on meticulous archival research and oral history interviews with over one hundred parents, teachers, students, principals, superintendents, community leaders, and school board members, Natalie G. Adams and James H. Adams explore the arduous and complex task of implementing school desegregation. How were bus routes determined? Who lost their position as principal? Who was assigned to what classes? Without losing sight of the important macro forces in precipitating social change, the authors shift attention to how the daily work of just trying to have school helped shape the contours of school desegregation in communities still living with the decisions made fifty years ago. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Encyclopedia of African-American Education Charles A. Asbury, D. Kamili Anderson, Michael Fultz, Sylvia M. Jacobs, Faustine C. Jones-Wilson, Margo Okazawa-Rey, 1996-08-28 This indispensable reference is a comprehensive guide to significant issues, policies, historical events, laws, theories, and persons related to the education of African-Americans in the United States. Through several hundred alphabetically arranged entries, the volume chronicles the history of African-American education from the systematic, long-term denial of schooling to blacks before the Civil War, to the establishment of the Freedmen's Bureau and the era of Reconstruction, to Brown v. Board of Education and the civil rights reforms of the last few decades. Entries are written by expert contributors and contain valuable bibliographies, while a selected bibliography of general sources concludes the volume. The African-American population is unique in that its educational history includes as law and public policy the systematic, long-term denial of the acquisition of knowledge. In the 18th century, African-Americans were initially legally forbidden to be taught academic subjects in the South, where most African-Americans lived. This period, which ended around 1865 with the conclusion of the Civil War and the establishment of the Freedmen's Bureau, was followed by the introduction of laws, policies, and practices providing for rudimentary education for 69 years under the dual-school, separate-but-equal policies established by Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). These policies did not end until the Brown v. Board of Education decisions of 1954 and 1955 were reinforced by the passage of civil rights and equal opportunity legislation in the mid-1960s. The education of African-Americans has been a continuing moral, political, legal, economic, and psychological issue throughout this country's history. It continues to consume time and attention, and it remains an unresolved dilemma for the nation. Through several hundred alphabetically arranged entries, this indispensable reference offers a comprehensive overview of significant issues, policies, historical events, laws, persons, and theories related to African-American education from the early years of this country to the present day. The entries are written by expert contributors, and each entry includes a bibliography of works for further reading. A selected, general bibliography concludes the volume. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Hearings United States. Congress. House. Committee on Education, 1972 |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Equal Educational Opportunities Act United States. Congress. House. Committee on Education and Labor, 1972 |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Hearings, Reports, Public Laws United States. Congress. House. Committee on Education and Labor, 1967 |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Equal Educational Opportunities Act: April 13, 18, 19, 24, and 28, 1972 United States. Congress. House. Committee on Education and Labor, 1972 |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: The Courts, Social Science, and School Desegregation Betsy Levin, 2018-02-06 This book surveys the legal issues confronting courts as they decide school desegregation cases, and the extent to which social science research has been brought to bear on those issues. It examines the relationship between school segregation and residential segregation. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Equal Justice Under Law Constance Baker Motley, 1999-09-10 A civil rights lawyer who became the first African American female federal judge, describes her career, including working with Thurgood Marshall's NAACP legal team. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: United States of America V. Board of School Commissioners of the City of Indianapolis, Indiana , 1978 |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Hearings, Reports and Prints of the House Committee on Education and Labor United States. Congress. House. Committee on Education and Labor, 1972 |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Encyclopedia of African American Education Kofi Lomotey, 2010 The Encyclopedia of African American Education covers educational institutions at every level, from preschool through graduate and professional training, with special attention to historically black and predominantly black colleges and universities. Other entries cover individuals, organizations, associations, and publications that have had a significant impact on African American education. The Encyclopedia also presents information on public policy affecting the education of African Americans, including both court decisions and legislation. It includes a discussion of curriculum, concepts, theories, and alternative models of education, and addresses the topics of gender and sexual orientation, religion, and the media. The Encyclopedia also includes a Reader's Guide, provided to help readers find entries on related topics. It classifies entries in sixteen categories: Alternative Educational Models Associations and Organizations Biographies Collegiate Education Curriculum Economics Gender Graduate and Professional Education Historically Black Colleges and Universities Legal Cases Pre-Collegiate Education Psychology and Human Development Public Policy Publications Religious Institutions Segregation/Desegregation. Some entries appear in more than one category. This two-volume reference work will be an invaluable resource not only for educators and students but for all readers who seek an understanding of African American education both historically and in the 21st century. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Congressional Record United States. Congress, 1971 The Congressional Record is the official record of the proceedings and debates of the United States Congress. It is published daily when Congress is in session. The Congressional Record began publication in 1873. Debates for sessions prior to 1873 are recorded in The Debates and Proceedings in the Congress of the United States (1789-1824), the Register of Debates in Congress (1824-1837), and the Congressional Globe (1833-1873) |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Revolution by Law Brian K. Landsberg, 2022-07-10 The landmark Brown v. Board of Education case was the start of a long period of desegregation, but Brown did not give a roadmap for how to achieve this lofty goal—it only provided the destination. In the years that followed, the path toward the fulfillment of this vision for school integration was worked out in the courts through the efforts of the NAACP Legal Defense organization and the Civil Rights Division of the US Department of Justice. One of the major cases on this path was Lee v. Macon County Board of Education (1967). Revolution by Law traces the growth of Lee v. Macon County from a case to desegregate a single school district in rural Alabama to a decision that paved the way for ending state-imposed racial segregation of the schools in the Deep South. Author Brian Landsberg began his career as a young attorney working for the Civil Rights Division of the DOJ in 1964, the year after the lawsuit that would lead to the Lee decision was filed. As someone personally involved in the legal struggle for civil rights, Landsberg writes with first-hand knowledge of the case. His carefully researched study of this important case argues that private plaintiffs, the executive branch, the federal courts, and eventually Congress each played important roles in transforming the South from the most segregated to the least segregated region of the United States. The Lee case played a central role in dismantling Alabama’s official racial caste system, and the decision became the model both for other statewide school desegregation cases and for cases challenging conditions in prisons and institutions for mentally ill people. Revolution by Law gives readers a deep understanding of the methods used by the federal government to desegregate the schools of the Deep South. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Even the Children of Strangers Donald Wilson Jackson, 1992 Jackson unravels the complex meanings of equal protection doctrine and its various interpretations over the last 134 years. After comparing equal protection laws in the U.S. to those in Canada and India and certain provisions of international law, he offers possible ways to resolve apparently intractable conflicts between individualism and affirmative action policies. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: The Complete Idiot's Guide to African American History Melba J. Duncan, 2003-01-28 Although the first black slaves arrived in Jamestown, Virginia in 1619, our knowledge of African American history is often limited to lessons in films. The Complete Idiot's Guide® to African American History reveals a full portrait of black life, including familiar figures such as Harriet Tubman, W.E.B. DuBois, and Martin Luther King, Jr. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Equal Educational Opportunities Act: March 27, 28, 29; April 11 and 12, 1972 United States. Congress. House. Committee on Education and Labor, 1972 |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Edward S. Corwin's Constitution and What It Means Today Edward S. Corwin, 2008-09-02 For over seventy-five years Edward S. Corwin's text has been a basic reference in the study of U.S. Constitutional Law. The 14th edition, the first new edition since 1973, brings the volume up to date through 1977. In this classic work, historian Edward Corwin presented the text of the U.S. Constitution along with his own commentary on its articles, sections, clauses, and amendments. Corwin was a renowned authority on constitutional law and jurisprudence, and was hired at Princeton University by Woodrow Wilson in 1905. Far from being an impersonal textbook, Corwin's edition was full of opinion. Not afraid to express his own strong views of the development of American law, Corwin offered piquant descriptions of the debates about the meaning of clauses, placing recent decisions of the court in the familiar setting of his own views. The favor of his style is evident in his comments on judicial review (American democracy's way of covering its bet) and the cabinet (an administrative anachronism that should be replaced by a legislative council whose daily salt does not come from the Presidential table). Corwin periodically revised the book for nearly forty years, incorporating into each new edition his views of new Supreme Court rulings and other changes in American law. Although Corwin intended his book for the general public, his interpretations always gained the attention of legal scholars and practitioners. The prefaces he wrote to the revised editions were often controversial for the views he offered on the latest developments of constitutional law, and the book only grew in stature and recognition. After his death in 1963, other scholars prepared subsequent editions, fourteen in all. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Equality in Education Law and Policy, 1954–2010 Benjamin M. Superfine, 2013-03-11 Educational equality has long been a vital concept in US law and policy. Since Brown v. Board of Education, the concept of educational equality has remained markedly durable and animated major school reform efforts, including desegregation, school finance reform, the education of students with disabilities and English language learners, charter schools, voucher policies, the various iterations of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (including No Child Left Behind) and the 'Stimulus'. Despite such attention, students' educational opportunities have remained persistently unequal as understandings of the goals underlying schooling, fundamental changes in educational governance, and the definition of an equal education have continually shifted. Drawing from law, education policy, history and political science, this book examines how the concept of equality in education law and policy has transformed from Brown through the Stimulus, the major factors influencing this transformation, and the significant problems that school reforms accordingly continue to face. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Hollywood V. Hard Core Jon Lewis, 2002-09 An intriguing look at how the American film industry imposed the rating system upon itself to control competition from films independently produced and distributed. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: We Can Do It Michael T. Gengler, 2018-08-21 This book tells of the challenges faced by white and black school administrators, teachers, parents, and students as Alachua County, Florida, moved from segregated schools to a single, unitary school system. After Brown v. Board of Education, the South’s separate white and black schools continued under lower court opinions, provided black students could choose to go to white schools. Not until 1968 did the NAACP Legal Defense Fund convince the Supreme Court to end dual school systems. Almost fifty years later, African Americans in Alachua County remain divided over that outcome. A unique study including extensive interviews, We Can Do It asks important questions, among them: How did both races, without precedent, work together to create desegregated schools? What conflicts arose, and how were they resolved (or not)? How was the community affected? And at a time when resegregation and persistent white-black achievement gaps continue to challenge public schools, what lessons can we learn from the generation that desegregated our schools? |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: The Pursuit of Racial and Ethnic Equality in American Public Schools Kristi L. Bowman, 2014-12-19 In 1954 the Supreme Court decided Brown v. Board of Education; ten years later, Congress enacted the Civil Rights Act. These monumental changes in American law dramatically expanded educational opportunities for racial and ethnic minority children across the country. They also changed the experiences of white children, who have learned in increasingly diverse classrooms. The authors of this commemorative volume include leading scholars in law, education, and public policy, as well as important historical figures. Taken together, the chapters trace the narrative arc of school desegregation in the United States, beginning in California in the 1940s, continuing through Brown v. Board, the Civil Rights Act, and three important Supreme Court decisions about school desegregation and voluntary integration in 1974, 1995, and 2007. The authors also assess the status of racial and ethnic equality in education today and consider the viability of future legal and policy reform in pursuit of the goals of Brown v. Board. This remarkable collection of voices in conversation with one another lays the groundwork for future discussions about the relationship between law and educational equality, and ultimately for the creation of new public policy. A valuable reference for scholars and students alike, this dynamic text is an important contribution to the literature by an outstanding group of authors. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: Understanding the Backlash Against Affirmative Action John Fobanjong, 2001 Affirmative action remains one of the most divisive issues in America, remaining unsolved since the 1960s civil rights legislation. Though many works have attempted to solve the dilemma, none have tried to identify the underlying causes of the backlash against the policy. In order to understand affirmative action's future, one must understand its evolution, its opposition, and its application both in America and in other nations. In a multi-disciplinary approach, this book examines affirmative action from comparative, historical, policy, and sociological perspectives. Also included is a list of Supreme Court rulings on affirmative action. |
| alexander v holmes county board of education: The Nexus of Teaching and Demographics Boyd L. Bradbury, 2020-11-24 The Nexus of Teaching and Demographics: Context and Connections from Colonial Times to Today provides an overview of the evolution of education in the United States within the context of teacher preparation and demographics. Boyd Bradbury argues that the key to equitable education for all, including marginalized and underserved populations, is the nexus of teaching and demographics. Bradbury examines the history of education in the U.S., the relationship between minorities and education, the current state of teacher preparation, supply, and demand, and the potential impact of pedagogical dissonance, resilience, and best practices can have on creating diverse educational settings. |
Alexander the Great - Wikipedia
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Alexander the Great - Wikipedia
Alexander III of Macedon (Ancient Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος, romanized: Aléxandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the …
Alexander the Great | Empire, Death, Map, & Facts | Britannica
Jun 2, 2025 · Alexander the Great was a fearless Macedonian king and military genius, conquered vast territories from Greece to Egypt and India, leaving an enduring legacy as one …
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Alexander the Great - National Geographic Society
Oct 19, 2023 · Alexander the Great, a Macedonian king, conquered the eastern Mediterranean, Egypt, the Middle East, and parts of Asia in a remarkably short period of time. His empire …
Alexander the Great | History of Alexander the Great
Alexander began first on the Balkan Campaign which was successful in bringing the rest of Greece under Macedonian control. Following this he would begin his highly successful and …
BBC - History - Alexander the Great
Read a biography about Alexander the Great from his early life to becoming a military leader. How did he change the nature of the ancient world?
Alexander the Great - World History Encyclopedia
Nov 14, 2013 · Alexander III of Macedon, better known as Alexander the Great (l. 21 July 356 BCE – 10 or 11 June 323 BCE, r. 336-323 BCE), was the son of King Philip II of Macedon (r. …
Alexander the Great: Facts, biography and accomplishments
Nov 8, 2021 · Alexander the Great was king of Macedonia from 336 B.C. to 323 B.C. and conquered a huge empire that stretched from the Balkans to modern-day Pakistan. During his …
Alexander the Great Alexander of Macedon Biography
Alexander III the Great, the King of Macedonia and conqueror of the Persian Empire is considered one of the greatest military geniuses of all times. He was inspiration for later conquerors such …
Alexander - Wikipedia
Alexander (Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος) is a male name of Greek origin. The most prominent bearer of the name is Alexander the Great , the king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia who …
