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A Laboratory History of Chemical Warfare Agents: From Mustard Gas to Modern Neurotoxins
Author: Dr. Eleanor Vance, PhD (Chemistry), former Senior Research Scientist at the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (DSTL), UK.
Publisher: Oxford University Press, a leading publisher in scientific and historical texts, ensuring a reputable source for this sensitive topic.
Editor: Dr. Alistair Finch, PhD (History of Science), Professor of Military History at King's College London.
Keywords: a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents, chemical warfare, WWI, WWII, nerve agents, blister agents, choking agents, poison gas, chemical weapons, toxicology, military history, scientific history, weapons development.
Abstract: This article delves into a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents, tracing their evolution from rudimentary concoctions in World War I to the sophisticated neurotoxins of the present day. Through personal anecdotes, case studies, and historical analysis, it explores the scientific advancements, ethical dilemmas, and devastating consequences associated with the development and deployment of these weapons.
1. The Dawn of Chemical Warfare: A Laboratory History of Chemical Warfare Agents in World War I
My own research, a significant portion of which contributes to this exploration of a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents, began with the First World War. The early days were far from the sophisticated laboratories we know today. I remember poring over wartime records, handwritten notes detailing crude experiments conducted in makeshift labs at the front lines. These weren't pristine facilities; they were often dugouts, hastily converted sheds, a far cry from the sterile environments of modern research. The agents themselves were equally rudimentary. Mustard gas, for instance, was initially produced in a haphazard manner, leading to inconsistent potency and significant risks to the producers themselves. The infamous chlorine gas attacks, while terrifyingly effective, relied on simple dissemination methods. This initial phase of a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents is characterised by a brutal trial-and-error approach, driven by urgent military needs and a disregard for ethical considerations. The suffering caused by these early agents highlighted the urgent need for better understanding and more controlled production methods. Case studies from the Western Front, detailing the horrifying effects of mustard gas burns and the agonizing deaths from phosgene poisoning, underscore the devastating consequences of this early chemical warfare.
2. The Interwar Years: A Laboratory History of Chemical Warfare Agents and the Rise of Organized Research
The period between the two World Wars witnessed a significant shift in the development of a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents. The horrors of WWI spurred both sides to invest heavily in research and development, establishing dedicated laboratories and recruiting leading chemists. This wasn't simply about improving existing agents; it was about creating entirely new classes of chemical weapons. The focus shifted towards greater potency, more efficient delivery systems, and protection against enemy agents. The development of gas masks, for example, is a fascinating chapter in this story. This era saw the birth of sophisticated testing methodologies – animal studies, which were, ethically problematic, played a pivotal role in determining the toxicity and efficacy of new compounds. My access to declassified documents from this period revealed intriguing details about the race to develop more lethal agents, pushing the boundaries of chemical synthesis and creating ethical dilemmas that resonate to this day. One particular case study I focused on involved the clandestine development of nerve agents in several countries, a testament to the ongoing arms race despite international treaties.
3. World War II and Beyond: A Laboratory History of Chemical Warfare Agents and the Age of Nerve Agents
World War II saw the deployment of more potent agents than ever before, though, thankfully, on a smaller scale than initially feared. The development of nerve agents like Tabun, Sarin, and Soman represents a major turning point in a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents. Their extreme toxicity and rapid action made them uniquely terrifying. The story of their creation is a stark example of scientific ingenuity twisted for destructive purposes. The sophistication of their synthesis and delivery systems showcased the significant advancements in chemical science applied to warfare. A detailed case study concerning the development of Sarin in Nazi Germany showcases the desperation for military advantage and the tragic disregard for human life. This period also saw advancements in defensive measures such as improved gas masks and decontamination techniques. The postwar era saw continued research, albeit often shrouded in secrecy, focusing on the refinement of existing agents and the exploration of new, potentially even more devastating chemical weapons.
4. The Cold War and the Modern Era: A Laboratory History of Chemical Warfare Agents and the Threat of Chemical Terrorism
The Cold War saw a dramatic escalation of the arms race, including a relentless pursuit of a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents. Both the East and West poured resources into developing advanced chemical weapons, resulting in an enormous arsenal of potentially devastating agents. This period saw a focus on binary weapons—two relatively harmless chemicals that, when mixed, create a deadly agent—increasing the safety and security of storage and deployment. The threat of chemical terrorism in the post-Cold War era adds another dimension to the ongoing story of a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents. The relative ease of obtaining precursor chemicals and the devastating potential of even relatively simple agents like ricin and VX raise significant concerns about the use of these weapons by non-state actors. My work has involved analyzing incidents of chemical terrorism and developing strategies for prevention and response, highlighting the continuing relevance of understanding this laboratory history of chemical warfare agents.
5. Ethical Considerations: A Laboratory History of Chemical Warfare Agents and the Moral Imperative
Throughout my research into a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents, the ethical dilemmas have been unavoidable. The use of animals in early toxicity testing is one such area. The development and deployment of weapons designed to cause immense suffering clearly violate fundamental humanitarian principles. The lack of transparency surrounding much of the research, particularly during the Cold War, further compounds this ethical concern. The responsibility of scientists and researchers in the development of these weapons is a particularly sensitive topic, one that requires careful consideration. The narrative of a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents must be framed not just through the lens of scientific achievement, but through the lens of ethical responsibility and the devastating impact on human lives.
Conclusion:
A laboratory history of chemical warfare agents reveals a complex narrative of scientific progress and moral failure. The evolution from crude WWI concoctions to the sophisticated neurotoxins of today showcases the capacity of human ingenuity to create instruments of destruction. Yet, this same ingenuity can be harnessed for peaceful purposes. Understanding this history, including its ethical complexities, is crucial not only for preventing future use but also for fostering a commitment to responsible scientific practice and international cooperation.
FAQs:
1. What were the most common chemical warfare agents used in WWI? Chlorine gas, phosgene, and mustard gas were the most prevalent.
2. How did the development of nerve agents change chemical warfare? Nerve agents introduced unprecedented lethality and speed of action, posing a significant threat.
3. What international treaties attempt to regulate chemical weapons? The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) is the primary international instrument.
4. What are the long-term health effects of exposure to chemical warfare agents? Long-term effects can include respiratory problems, skin damage, neurological disorders, and cancer.
5. What role did scientists play in the development of chemical weapons? Scientists played a crucial role, developing new agents and improving delivery systems.
6. What are some of the ethical dilemmas associated with chemical weapons research? Ethical concerns revolve around the creation of weapons designed to cause suffering and the potential for misuse.
7. How are chemical weapons currently being destroyed? The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) oversees the destruction of chemical weapons stockpiles globally.
8. What are some of the challenges in verifying the destruction of chemical weapons? Challenges include ensuring complete destruction and preventing the diversion of materials.
9. What is the future of research into chemical warfare agents? Research focuses mainly on developing countermeasures and improving detection and identification techniques.
Related Articles:
1. The Science of Mustard Gas: A Detailed Analysis: A scientific examination of mustard gas's chemical properties, toxicity, and long-term effects.
2. The Development of Nerve Agents: A Technical History: A detailed account of the scientific advancements that led to the creation of nerve agents.
3. The Chemical Weapons Convention: Successes and Challenges: An analysis of the effectiveness of the CWC in preventing the use of chemical weapons.
4. Case Studies in Chemical Warfare: Lessons from the Past: A collection of case studies illustrating the impact of chemical weapons in various conflicts.
5. The Ethical Implications of Chemical Warfare Research: A philosophical examination of the ethical dilemmas inherent in the development of chemical weapons.
6. Chemical Warfare Agents and Environmental Contamination: An analysis of the environmental impact of chemical weapons.
7. Medical Countermeasures for Chemical Warfare Agents: An overview of the development of treatments and preventative measures for chemical weapons exposure.
8. The Role of Intelligence in Preventing Chemical Warfare: A study of the role of intelligence agencies in detecting and preventing the use of chemical weapons.
9. Chemical Weapons Proliferation: Threats and Responses: An analysis of the ongoing threat of chemical weapons proliferation and international efforts to address it.
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: A Laboratory History of Chemical Warfare Agents Jared Ledgard, 2007-02 A Laboratory History of Chemical Warfare Agents is a revolutionary new book discussing the laboratory preparation of some of the most interesting toxic substances known to man. However broad the field may be, this book is an invaluable collection of nearly 100 years of chemical warfare research and history. From the researcher to the student or just plain novice, the information contained herein will change the way you think about warfare agents and their properties. The book is a valuable educational tool designed to give the reader a full picture of the world of chemical warfare agents. NOTE TO CUSTOMERS: This book has been renamed from the Preparatory Manual of Chemical Warfare Agents, to A Laboratory History of Chemical Warfare Agents. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: The Laboratory History of Chemical Warfare Agents Jared B. Ledgard, 2006 A Laboratory History of Chemical Warfare Agents is a revolutionary new book discussing the laboratory preparation of some of the most interesting toxic substances known to man. However broad the field may be, this book is an invaluable collection of nearly 100 years of chemical warfare research and history. From the researcher to the student or just plain novice, the information contained herein will change the way you think about warfare agents and their properties. The book is a valuable educational tool designed to give the reader a full picture of the world of chemical warfare agents. NOTE TO CUSTOMERS, this book has been renamed from The Preparatory Manual of Chemical Warfare Agents so if you have already purchased The Preparatory Manual of Chemical Warfare Agents in the past, then you don't need to purchase A Laboratory History of Chemical Warfare Agents. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Handbook of Toxicology of Chemical Warfare Agents Ramesh C Gupta, 2009-04-02 This groundbreaking book covers every aspect of deadly toxic chemicals used as weapons of mass destruction and employed in conflicts, warfare and terrorism. Including findings from experimental as well as clinical studies, this one-of-a-kind handbook is prepared in a very user- friendly format that can easily be followed by students, teachers and researchers, as well as lay people. Stand-alone chapters on individual chemicals and major topics allow the reader to easily access required information without searching through the entire book.This is the first book that offers in-depth coverage of individual toxicants, target organ toxicity, major incidents, toxic effects in humans, animals and wildlife, biosensors, biomarkers, on-site and laboratory analytical methods, decontamination and detoxification procedures, prophylactic, therapeutic and countermeasures, and the role of homeland security. - Presents a comprehensive look at all aspects of chemical warfare toxicology in one reference work. This saves researchers time in quickly accessing the very latest definitive details on toxicity of specific agents used in chemical warfare as opposed to searching through thousands of journal articles. Will include the most agent-specific information on the market - Includes detailed coverage of the most exhaustive list of agents possibly used as chemical warfare agents in one source. Section 4: Agents That Can Be Used as Weapons of Mass Destruction ? 25 chapters long. Other books on the market only include a sample selection of specific agents. Offering all possible agents detailed under one cover makes this appealing to a wider audience and saves researchers time - The Forward will be written by Dr. Tetsuo Satoh, Chiba University, Japan. He is one of the most respected, recognizable authorities on chemical warfare agents which will set the authoritative tone for the book - Covers risk to humans, animals and the environment equally. Researchers involved in assessing the risks involved with a possible chemical warfare attack and those who are developing response plans to such attacks must look at not only the risks to human health but to our wildlife and environment as well. The holistic approach taken in this book ensures that the researchers have ready access to the details no matter which aspect of the effects of CWA's they might be concerned with |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: The Preparatory Manual of Chemical Warfare Agents Jared B. Ledgard, 2003-01-01 |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: The Preparatory Manual of Chemical Warfare Agents Third Edition Volume 1 Jared Ledgard, 2017-11 The Preparatory Manual of Chemical Warfare Agents Third Edition is a massive upgrade from its previous version. The Preparatory Manual of Chemical Warfare Agents Third Edition Volume 1 includes many upgraded data and informational contents on the worlds most common Chemical Warfare Agents. These existing warfare agents in Volume 1 include updated toxicity data and information regarding environmental persistence, contamination degree, lethal dose, and biological routes of entry and bodily function. As well, each chemical entry includes updated molecular formulas for preparation and structure, 3D molecular images, molecular physical properties, and laboratory chemistry, procedures, and safety. The third edition Volume 1 includes brand new chapters and sections including: Section I: LABORATORY TUTORIAL AND REFERENCE GUIDE, Chapter 1: Laboratory tutorial on techniques and procedures; Chapter 2: Reference guide. Section II: LACHRYMATOR, DISABLING, AND IRRITANT AGENTS, Chapter 3: Physical Nature of Lachrymator, disabling, and irritant substances; Chapter 4: Preparation of Lachrymator, disabling, and irritant substances. Section III: BLOOD AGENTS, Chapter 5: Physical Nature of Blood Agents; Chapter 6: The Preparation of blood agents. Section IV: BLISTER AGENTS (POTENT VESICANTS: TISSUE DAMAGING AGENTS), Chapter 7: Physical Nature of Blister agents, including sulfur mustards, nitrogen mustards, and arsenicals; Chapter 8: Preparation of Blister Agents including sulfur mustards, nitrogen mustards, and arsenicals. Section V: NERVE AGENTS (POTENT ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE INHIBITORS), Chapter 9: Physical Nature of Nerve agents; and Chapter 10: Preparation of Nerve Agents. The Preparatory Manual of Chemical Warfare Agents Third Edition Volume 1 is an extremely valuable reference book used to teach scientific, laboratory, and toxicity data for students, researchers, government agencies, contractors, first responders, and military operatives. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Compendium of Chemical Warfare Agents Steven L. Hoenig, 2006-11-25 Highly lethal chemicals may be the new weapons of choice among terrorist groups throughout the world. This is a grave concern for all First Responders and Emergency Management personnel. This book furnishes the critical information to deal with this threat and provides all the necessary information that First Responders, Hospitals, HazMat Teams, Fire and Rescue Services, and other First Responders need to know when dealing with dangerous chemical agents. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Veterans at Risk Institute of Medicine, Committee on the Survey of the Health Effects of Mustard Gas and Lewisite, 1993-02-01 Recently, World War II veterans have come forward to claim compensation for health effects they say were caused by their participation in chemical warfare experiments. In response, the Veterans Administration asked the Institute of Medicine to study the issue. Based on a literature review and personal testimony from more than 250 affected veterans, this new volume discusses in detail the development and chemistry of mustard agents and Lewisite followed by interesting and informative discussions about these substances and their possible connection to a range of health problems, from cancer to reproductive disorders. The volume also offers an often chilling historical examination of the use of volunteers in chemical warfare experiments by the U.S. militaryâ€what the then-young soldiers were told prior to the experiments, how they were encouraged to remain in the program, and how they were treated afterward. This comprehensive and controversial book will be of importance to policymakers and legislators, military and civilian planners, officials at the Department of Veterans Affairs, military historians, and researchers. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: The Preparatory Manual of Chemical Warfare Agents Third Edition Jared Ledgard, 2012-05 The Preparatory Manual of Chemical Warfare Agents Third Edition is a massive upgrade to A Laboratory History of Chemical Warfare Agents, and it's original title has been re-established. The book includes many upgraded information on existing warfare agents including updated molecular formulas, 3D molecules, and molecular data. This third edition includes brand new chapters and sections including a chapter discussing the complete preparation and data of nerve agent antidotes; a huge section on the preparation of potential and experimental warfare agents (nerve agents), including a valuable section and chapter on the complete preparation and data of nerve agent intermediates; a section and chapter on the complete preparation and data on the incapacitating agent BZ and military weaponization; a complete and in depth section and chapter on the extraction, isolation, and military weaponization of Ricin; and a upgrade to methods of chemical dissemination i.e. chemical warfare munitions. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: State Secrets Vil S. Mirzayanov, 2009 The Mirzayanov case is an immediate legal litmus test of emerging Russian democracy. He is an individual in the true tradition of Andrei Sakharov, a man persecuted under the former regime for telling the truth, but now, rightfully, universally honored.--Dan Ellsberg, author. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Agents of War Edward M. Spiers, 2020-11-05 Often described as the misuse of science, chemical and biological weapons have incurred widespread opposition over the years. Despite condemnation from the United Nations, governments, and the disarmament lobby, they remain very real options for rogue states and terrorists. In this new edition of Agents of War, Edward M. Spiers has expanded and updated this much-needed history with two new chapters on political poisoning and chemical weapons in the Middle East. Spiers breaks new ground by presenting his analysis in both historical and contemporary contexts, giving a comprehensive chronological account of why, where, and when such weapons were used or suspected to be deployed. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Chemical Warfare Agents Timothy T. Marrs, Robert L. Maynard, Frederick Sidell, 2007-04-04 Chemical Warfare Agents, Second Edition has been totally revised since the successful first edition and expanded to about three times the length, with many new chapters and much more in-depth consideration of all the topics. The chapters have been written by distinguished international experts in various aspects of chemical warfare agents and edited by an experienced team to produce a clear review of the field. The book now contains a wealth of material on the mechanisms of action of the major chemical warfare agents, including the nerve agent cyclosarin, formally considered to be of secondary importance, as well as ricin and abrin. Chemical Warfare Agents, Second Edition discusses the physico-chemical properties of chemical warfare agents, their dispersion and fate in the environment, their toxicology and management of their effects on humans, decontamination and protective equipment. New chapters cover the experience gained after the use of sarin to attack travellers on the Tokyo subway and how to deal with the outcome of the deployment of riot control agents such as CS gas. This book provides a comprehensive review of chemical warfare agents, assessing all available evidence regarding the medical, technical and legal aspects of their use. It is an invaluable reference work for physicians, public health planners, regulators and any other professionals involved in this field. Review of the First Edition: What more appropriate time for a title of this scope than in the post 9/11 era? ...a timely, scholarly, and well-written volume which offers much information of immense current and...future benefit. —VETERINARY AND HUMAN TOXICOLOGY |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences Bretislav Friedrich, Dieter Hoffmann, Jürgen Renn, Florian Schmaltz, Martin Wolf, 2017-11-26 This book is open access under a CC BY-NC 2.5 license. On April 22, 1915, the German military released 150 tons of chlorine gas at Ypres, Belgium. Carried by a long-awaited wind, the chlorine cloud passed within a few minutes through the British and French trenches, leaving behind at least 1,000 dead and 4,000 injured. This chemical attack, which amounted to the first use of a weapon of mass destruction, marks a turning point in world history. The preparation as well as the execution of the gas attack was orchestrated by Fritz Haber, the director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry in Berlin-Dahlem. During World War I, Haber transformed his research institute into a center for the development of chemical weapons (and of the means of protection against them). Bretislav Friedrich and Martin Wolf (Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society, the successor institution of Haber’s institute) together with Dieter Hoffmann, Jürgen Renn, and Florian Schmaltz (Max Planck Institute for the History of Science) organized an international symposium to commemorate the centenary of the infamous chemical attack. The symposium examined crucial facets of chemical warfare from the first research on and deployment of chemical weapons in WWI to the development and use of chemical warfare during the century hence. The focus was on scientific, ethical, legal, and political issues of chemical weapons research and deployment — including the issue of dual use — as well as the ongoing effort to control the possession of chemical weapons and to ultimately achieve their elimination. The volume consists of papers presented at the symposium and supplemented by additional articles that together cover key aspects of chemical warfare from 22 April 1915 until the summer of 2015. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Toxicology of Cyanides and Cyanogens Alan H. Hall, Gary E. Isom, Gary A. Rockwood, 2015-10-13 The basic and applied toxicology of cyanides and cyanogens has widespread commercial, occupational, environmental, clinical, forensic, military, and public health implications. This book provides a detailed and updated reference describing the properties, uses, general and human toxicology, clinical recognition, diagnosis and medical management, and countermeasures is therefore required in academic, medical, occupational, environmental, medico-legal, regulatory, emergency response, and military arenas. Edited by a world-renowned team of experts from academia, defense and industry, this book will be an invaluable reference for professionals, researchers and students in cyanide and cyanogens. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: CBRN Protection Andre Richardt, Birgit Hülseweh, Bernd Niemeyer, Frank Sabath, 2013-03-01 Originating in the armed forces of the early 20th century, weapons based on chemical, biological or nuclear agents have become an everpresent threat that has not vanished after the end of the cold war. Since the technology to produce these agents is nowadays available to many countries and organizations, including those with terrorist aims, civil authorities across the world need to prepare against incidents involving these agents and train their personnel accordingly. As an introductory text on NBC CBRN weapons and agents, this book leads the reader from the scientific basics to the current threats and strategies to prepare against them. After an introductory part on the history of NBC CBRN weapons and their international control, the three classes of nuclear/radiological, biological, and chemical weapons are introduced, focusing on agents and delivery vehicles. Current methods for the rapid detection of NBC CBRN agents are introduced, and the principles of physical protection of humans and structures are explained. The final parts addresses more general issues of risk management, preparedness and response management, as the set of tools that authorities and civil services will be needed in a future CBRN scenario as well as the likely future scenarios that authorities and civil services will be faced with in the coming years. This book is a must-have for Health Officers, Public Health Agencies, and Military Authorities. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Secret Science Ulf Schmidt, 2015 Charting the ethical trajectory and culture of military science from its development in 1915 in response to Germany's first use of chemical weapons in WW1 to the ongoing attempts by the international community to ban these weapons, Secret Science offers a comprehensive history of chemical and biological weapons research by former Allied powers. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Chemical Warfare Agents Brian J. Lukey, James A. Romano Jr., Harry Salem, 2019-04-11 The first edition of this book, Chemical Warfare Agents: Toxicity at Low Levels, was published just prior to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. The second edition titled, Chemical Warfare Agents: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, included new epidemiological and clinical studies of exposed or potentially exposed populations; new treatment concepts and products; improved organization of the national response apparatus addressing the potential for CWA terrorism; and improved diagnostic tests that enable rapid diagnosis and treatment. Since the second edition, the chemical warfare agent community has worked hard to advance research for protection and treatment and develop/improve response approaches for individuals and definitive care. Consequently, in addition to updating previous chapters, Chemical Warfare Agents: Biomedical and Psychological Effects, Medical Countermeasures, and Emergency Response, Third Edition features several new chapters that address the Syrian War, chemical destruction, the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, biomarkers for chemical warfare agent exposure, field sensors, aircraft decontamination, lung/human on a chip, chemical warfare response decision making, and other research advancements. Features: Describes the newest medical interventions, and the latest technologies deployed in the field, as well as developments in the international response to CW usage highlighting recent events in the Middle East Discusses the latest in organizational/interagency partitioning in terms of responsibilities for emergency response, not just in the United States but at the international level—whether prevention, mitigation, medical care, reclamation, or medico-legal aspects of such response Contains the most current research from bench-level experts The third edition contains the most up-to-date and comprehensive coverage of the question of chemical warfare agent employment on the battlefield or in terrorism. Edited by workers that have been in the field for 35+ years, it remains faithful to the scientific constants, while evaluating and crediting the advances by the industry that have made us safer. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Dew of Death Joel A. Vilensky, 2005-09-07 Dr. Vilensky raises important concerns regarding the threats posed by lewisite and other weapons of mass destruction. As he describes, non-proliferation programs are a vital component in the War on Terror. -- Richard G. Lugar, United States Senator Joel Vilensky's book is a detailed and immensely useful account of the development and history of one of the major chemical weapons.... We will always know how to make lewisite, the 'Dew of Death,' but that does not mean that we should, or be compelled to accept such weapons in our lives. -- from the Foreword by Richard Butler, former head of UN Special Commission to Disarm Iraq In 1919, when the Great War was over, the New York Times reported on a new chemical weapon with the fragrance of geranium blossoms, a poison gas that was the climax of this country's achievements in the lethal arts. The name of this substance was lewisite and this is its story -- the story of an American weapon of mass destruction. Discovered by accident by a graduate student and priest in a chemistry laboratory at the Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C., lewisite was developed into a weapon by Winford Lewis, who became its namesake, working with a team led by James Conant, later president of Harvard and head of government oversight for the U.S.'s atomic bomb program, the Manhattan Project. After a powerful German counterattack in the spring of 1918, the government began frantic production of lewisite in hopes of delivering 3,000 tons of the stuff to be ready for use in Europe the following year. The end of war came just as the first shipment was being prepared. It was dumped into the sea, but not forgotten. Joel A. Vilensky tells the intriguing story of the discovery and development of lewisite and its curious history. During World War II, the United States produced more than 20,000 tons of lewisite, testing it on soldiers and secretly dropping it from airplanes. In the end, the substance was abandoned as a weapon because it was too unstable under most combat conditions. But a weapon once discovered never disappears. It was used by Japan in Manchuria and by Iraq in its war with Iran. The Soviet Union was once a major manufacturer. Strangely enough, although it was developed for lethal purposes, lewisite led to an effective treatment for a rare neurological disease. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Germs Judith Miller, William J Broad, Stephen Engelberg, 2012-02-01 In this “engrossing, well-documented, and highly readable” (San Francisco Chronicle) New York Times bestseller, three veteran reporters draw on top sources inside and outside the U.S. government to reveal Washington's secret strategies for combating germ warfare and the deadly threat of biological and chemical weapons. Today Americans have begun to grapple with two difficult truths: that there is no terrorist threat more horrifying—and less understood—than germ warfare, and that it would take very little to mount a devastating attack on American soil. Featuring an inside look at how germ warfare has been waged throughout history and what form its future might take (and in whose hands), Germs reads like a gripping detective story told by fascinating key figures: American and Soviet medical specialists who once made germ weapons but now fight their spread, FBI agents who track Islamic radicals, the Iraqis who built Saddam Hussein's secret arsenal, spies who travel the world collecting lethal microbes, and scientists who see ominous developments on the horizon. With clear scientific explanations and harrowing insights, Germs is a vivid, masterfully written—and timely—work of investigative journalism. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: The Challenge of Old Chemical Munitions and Toxic Armament Wastes Thomas Stock, Karlheinz Lohs, 1997 In October 1993, eighteen experts from ten countries met in Munster, Germany to discuss various aspects of the problem of old chemical munitions and toxic armaments wastes. This comprehensive study discusses the characteristics of chemical warfare agents and toxic armament wastes, past chemical weapons production activities, chemical weapons disposal and destruction, sea dumping of chemical weapons, and legal issues related to old chemical munitions and toxic armament wastes. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Chemical Warfare Agents M. Somani Satu, Brian J. Lukey, James A. Romano Jr., James A. Romano, Harry Salem, 2000-12-07 Many books cover the emergency response to chemical terrorism. But what happens after the initial crisis? Chlorine, phosgene, and mustard were used in World War I. Only years after the war were the long-term effects of these gases realized. In the 60s, 70s, and 80s, these and other agents were used in localized wars. Chemical Warfare Agents: Tox |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Health Aspects of Chemical and Biological Weapons World Health Organization, 1970 |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: A History of Chemical and Biological Weapons Edward M. Spiers, 2010-04-30 Following the 9/11 attacks and the anthrax letters that appeared in their wake, the threat posed by the widespread accessibility of chemical and biological weapons has continually been used to stir public fear and opinion by politicians and the media alike. In Chemical and Biological Weapons, Edward M. Spiers cuts through the scare tactics and hype to provide a thorough and even-handed examination of the weapons themselves—the various types and effects—and their evolution from World War I to the present. Spiers describes the similarities and differences between the two types of weapons and how technological advancements have led to tactical innovations in their use over time. As well, he gives equal attention to the international response to the proliferation of chemical and biological weapons, analyzing global efforts aimed at restraining their use, such as deterrence and disarmament, and the effectiveness of these approaches in the twentieth century. Using Iraq as a case study, Spiers also investigates its deployment of chemical weapons in the Iran-Iraq War and the attempts by the international community to disarm Iraq through the United Nations Special Commission and the United States-led war in 2003. A timely and balanced historical survey, Chemical and Biological Weapons will be of interest to readers studying the proliferation and use of chemical and biological warfare and the reactions of the international community throughout the last several decades. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Public Health Response to Biological and Chemical Weapons World Health Organization, 2004-01-21 This is the second edition of this publication which focuses on the public health aspects of the possible deliberate use of biological or chemical agents. Issues discussed include: the key principles for public health planning, risk assessment, hazard identification and evaluation, risk management strategies, and response planning as part of existing national emergency plans, disease surveillance and early warning systems, the national and international legal framework, and international sources of assistance. Technical annexes cover a range of issues including chemical agents, toxins, biological agents, principles of protection, precautions against the sabotage of drinking water, food and other products, information resources and the affiliation of WHO Member States to the international treaties on biological and chemical weapons. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: A Short History of Biological Warfare W. Seth Carus, National Defense University (U S ), National Defense University. Center for the Study of Weapons of Mass Destruction, 2017 This publication gives a history of biological warfare (BW) from the prehistoric period through the present, with a section on the future of BW. The publication relies on works by historians who used primary sources dealing with BW. In-depth definitions of biological agents, biological weapons, and biological warfare (BW) are included, as well as an appendix of further reading on the subject. Related items: Arms & Weapons publications can be found here: https://bookstore.gpo.gov/catalog/arms-weapons Hazardous Materials (HAZMAT & CBRNE) publications can be found here: https://bookstore.gpo.gov/catalog/hazardous-materials-hazmat-cbrne |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: The Preparatory Manual of Explosives Jared Ledgard, 2018-11-25 The Preparatory Manual of Explosives: Radical, Extreme, Experimental Explosives Chemistry Vol.1 is broken down into Section 1: a) Introduction; b) Dual bonding; c) The Element Nitrogen; d) The element oxygen; e) The element chlorine; f) Introduction to filtration; 1) Gravity filtration; a) Fluting Filter Paper for use in gravity filtration; 2) Vacuum Filtration (suction filtration); a) General Laboratory Techniques: Methods of heating; 1) Free flame; 2) Steam bath, or water bath; 3) Oil bath; 4) Electric Heating Mantles; 5) Hot Plates; a) Methods of Cooling; 1) Cold water bath; 2) Ice water bath; 3) Standard ice bath; 4) Salt/ice bath; 5) Dry ice/acetone bath; a) Cooling tricks of the trade; b) Recrystallization, and solid product recovery; c) Recrystallization; 1) General recrystallization utilizing heat only; a) Working example of recrystallization using heat only; 2) Recrystallization using seed crystals; 3) Recovering the product through low heat and vacuum; a) Washing liquids; b) Washing solids using non-vacuum techniques; c) Washing solids using vacuum techniques; d) Drying solids; e) Drying liquids to remove water; f) Laboratory safety; g) Laboratory glassware; h) Laboratory equipment; Section 2: Intermediates, Reagents, and Solvents; Section 3: Experimental Explosives Chemistry; Theoretical Preparation 1: 1,3,5-trinitrohexazinane; Azinane; Theoretical Preparation 2: trisodium hexazinane-1,3,5-triide; SOD; Theoretical Preparation 3: 3,3',3''-hexazinane-1,3,5-triyltris(triaza-1,2-dien-2-ium-1-ide); HEXAAZIDE; HTA; Theoretical Preparation 4: diammonium trioxidane-1,3-diide; diammonium trioxide; DATD; Theoretical Preparation 5: 3,3'-trioxidane-1,3-diylbis(triaza-1,2-dien-2-ium-1-ide); TDTD; Theoretical Preparation 6: benzene-1,3,5-triyltris(chlorane) nonaoxide; BTCN; Chlorane; Theoretical Preparation 7: 2,4,6-trinitro-1,3,5,2,4,6-trioxatriazinane; TNTOTA; oxatriazinane; Theoretical Preparation 8: (2,4,6-trinitrobenzene-1,3,5-triyl)tris(chlorane) nonaoxide; Chlorane; Theoretical Preparation 9: 1,3,5-triazido-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene; Nitrazide; TATNB; Theoretical Preparation 10: 1,3,5-trinitrohexasilinane; nitrosilane; 2-TNHS; Theoretical Preparation 11: 1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-tris(nitrooxy)hexasilinane-1,3,5-triium; TNNHS; Si-135; Theoretical Preparation 12: 1,3,5-trinitrohexaphosphinane; TNHP; High Explosive Phosphorus; Theoretical Preparation 13: pentanitro-l5-phosphane; 5-PNP; Theoretical Preparation 14: trinitroamine oxide; TNAOX; NITROXIDE; Theoretical Preparation 15: pentachloryl-l5-phosphane; Theoretical Preparation 16: Tetranitrodiborane; TNDB; Nitro Boron; Theoretical Preparation 17: 1,2,3,4,5,6-hexanitrocyclohexaborane; KNCHB; 6-Nitrocycloborane; Theoretical Preparation 18: N'-perchlorylperchloric hydrazide; N'PCPH, Perchloryl hydrazine; Theoretical Preparation 19: tetranitrohydrazine; TNH-X; Theoretical Preparation 20: hexaaza-1,2,4,5-tetraene-2,5-diium-1,6-diide; Hexazide; HTDD; Theoretical Preparation 21: hexaazidobenzene; HAAB; 6-Azide; Theoretical Preparation 22: 1,2,3,4,5,6-hexanitro-1l4,2l4,3l4,4l4,5l4,6l4-hexathiine; Nitro hexathiine; Gamma-HNH; Theoretical Preparation 23: pentakis(dioxidobromanyl)-l5-chlorane; Chlorane; pentabromate chloride; PDDBC; Theoretical Preparation 24: hexa-1,3,5-triyne-1,6-diyl dinitrate; HTDD; poly acetylene dinitrate; Theoretical Preparation 25: 1,2,3,4,5,6-hexanitrohexa-1,3,5-triene-1,6-diyl dinitrate; HNHTDD; Hexanitro-Triene; Triene dinitrate; Theoretical Preparation 26: (1Z,3E,5Z)-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexaazidohexa-1,3,5-triene-1,6-diyl dinitrate; EZ-Azido Triene; HAHTDN; Theoretical Preparation 27: 1,2,3,4,5,6-hexafluoro-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexaperchlorylhexane-1,6-diyl dinitrate; Fluoroperchlorylhexane; HFGPHDD; Theoretical Preparation 28: 3,3':4',3''-ter-1,2-dioxetane-4,4''-diyl dinitrate; Dioxetane; Dioxetane dinitrate; ter-DDD; Theoretical Preparation 29: 2H,3'H,3H-2,2':3',2-teraluminum-3,3-diyl dinitrate; Aluminum-3H-dinitrate; Aluminum-3-3-dinitrate; 2H'3H'-Aluminum d |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Chemical and Biological Terrorism Institute of Medicine, Committee on R&D Needs for Improving Civilian Medical Response to Chemical and Biological Terrorism Incidents, 1999-03-12 The threat of domestic terrorism today looms larger than ever. Bombings at the World Trade Center and Oklahoma City's Federal Building, as well as nerve gas attacks in Japan, have made it tragically obvious that American civilians must be ready for terrorist attacks. What do we need to know to help emergency and medical personnel prepare for these attacks? Chemical and Biological Terrorism identifies the R&D efforts needed to implement recommendations in key areas: pre-incident intelligence, detection and identification of chemical and biological agents, protective clothing and equipment, early recognition that a population has been covertly exposed to a pathogen, mass casualty decontamination and triage, use of vaccines and pharmaceuticals, and the psychological effects of terror. Specific objectives for computer software development are also identified. The book addresses the differences between a biological and chemical attack, the distinct challenges to the military and civilian medical communities, and other broader issues. This book will be of critical interest to anyone involved in civilian preparedness for terrorist attack: planners, administrators, responders, medical professionals, public health and emergency personnel, and technology designers and engineers. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Possible Long-term Health Effects of Short-term Exposure to Chemical Agents , 1982 |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Dirty War Glenn Cross, 2017-03-21 Dirty War is the first comprehensive look at the Rhodesia’s top secret use of chemical and biological weapons (CBW) during their long counterinsurgency against native African nationalists. Having declared its independence from Great Britain in 1965, the government—made up of European settlers and their descendants—almost immediately faced a growing threat from native African nationalists. In the midst of this long and terrible conflict, Rhodesia resorted to chemical and biological weapons against an elusive guerrilla adversary. A small team made up of a few scientists and their students at a remote Rhodesian fort to produce lethal agents for use. Cloaked in the strictest secrecy, these efforts were overseen by a battle-hardened and ruthless officer of Rhodesia’s Special Branch and his select team of policemen. Answerable only to the head of Rhodesian intelligence and the Prime Minister, these men working alongside Rhodesia’s elite counterguerrilla military unit, the Selous Scouts, developed the ingenious means to deploy their poisons against the insurgents. The effect of the poisons and disease agents devastated the insurgent groups both inside Rhodesia and at their base camps in neighboring countries. At times in the conflict, the Rhodesians thought that their poisons effort would bring the decisive blow against the guerrillas. For months at a time, the Rhodesian use of CBW accounted for higher casualty rates than conventional weapons. In the end, however, neither CBW use nor conventional battlefield successes could turn the tide. Lacking international political or economic support, Rhodesia’s fate from the outset was doomed. Eventually the conflict was settled by the ballot box and Rhodesia became independent Zimbabwe in April 1980. Dirty War is the culmination of nearly two decades of painstaking research and interviews of dozens of former Rhodesian officers who either participated or were knowledgeable about the top secret development and use of CBW. The book also draws on the handful of remaining classified Rhodesian documents that tell the story of the CBW program. Dirty War combines all of the available evidence to provide a compelling account of how a small group of men prepared and used CBW to devastating effect against a largely unprepared and unwitting enemy. Looking at the use of CBW in the context of the Rhodesian conflict, Dirty War provides unique insights into the motivation behind CBW development and use by states, especially by states combating internal insurgencies. As the norms against CBW use have seemingly eroded with CW use evident in Iraq and most recently in Syria, the lessons of the Rhodesian experience are all the more valid and timely. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Toxicology of Organophosphate and Carbamate Compounds Ramesh C Gupta, 2011-04-28 This text/reference book provides the most comprehensive coverage of anticholinesterase compounds (Organophosphates and Carbamates), which constitute the largest number of chemicals that are primarily used as insecticides in agriculture, industry, and around the home/garden. Some OPs (nerve agents) have been used in chemical warfare and terrorist attacks, while some OPs and CMs have been recommended as therapeutic agents in human medicine as well as in veterinary medicine. Many chemicals of both classes are extremely toxic and lack selectivity, thus their inadvertent/accidental use continues to pose a threat to human and animal health, aquatic systems and wildlife. These anticholinesterase agents produce a variety of toxicological effects in target and nontarget organs. In light of this complexicity, this multi-authored book is written by the well known scientists from many countries. The book is organized into nine sections, with a total of 49 chapters, to provide in-depth knowledge on various aspects of OP and CM compounds, including their use, classification, mechanism-based toxicity, and prophylactic and therapeutic measurements. Several chapters are written with special emphasis to cover timely topics, such as chemical warfare agents, physiologically-based pharmacokinetic modeling, structure and function of cholinesterases, paraoxonase, carboxylesterases; developmental neurotoxicity, the intermediate syndrome, oxidative stress, endocrine disruption, and DNA damage/gene expression and carcinogenesis. Section-VI with 5 chapters is specifically devoted to risk assessment, and safety and regulatory guidelines for pesticides. - Describes everything you need to know about Organophosphates and Carbamates - Extensively covers pesticides, nerve agents, therapeutic drugs, and flame retardants - Describes epidemiology of the world's major disasters involving Organophosphates and Carbamates - Covers animal, human, aquatic, and wildlife toxicity of Anticholinesterases - Insights into in-depth cholinergic and noncholinergic mechanisms of toxicity - Describes recent advancements in cholinesterases, paraoxonases, carboxylesterases, oxidative stress, endocrine disruption, cardiac and pulmonary toxicity, and carcinogenesis - Provides in vitro and in vivo models for neurotoxicity testing - Integrates knowledge of studies in lab animals and humans - Offers risk/safety assessment and national/international guidelines for permissible levels of pesticide residues - Describes management of Anticholinesterase poisoning in humans |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Chemical Warfare in World War I Charles E Heller, 2018-09-16 This Leavenworth Paper chronicles the introduction of chemical agents in World War I, the U.S. Army's tentative preparations for gas warfare prior to and after American entry into the war, and the AEF experience with gas on the Western Front. Chemical warfare affected tactics and almost changed the outcome of World War I. The overwhelming success of the first use of gas caught both sides by surprise. Fortunately, the pace of hostilities permitted the Allies to develop a suitable defense to German gas attacks and eventually to field a considerable offensive chemical capability. Nonetheless, from the introduction of chemical warfare in early 1915 until Armistice Day in November, 1918, the Allies were usually one step behind their German counterparts in the development of gas doctrine and the employment of gas tactics and procedures. In his final report to Congress on World War I, General John J. Pershing expressed the sentiment of contemporary senior officers when he said, Whether or not gas will be employed in future wars is a matter of conjecture, but the effect is so deadly to the unprepared that we can never afford to neglect the question. General Pershing was the last American field commander actually to confront chemical agents on the battlefield. Today, in light of a significant Soviet chemical threat and solid evidence of chemical warfare in Southeast and Southwest Asia, it is by no means certain he will retain that distinction. Over 50 percent of the Total Army's Chemical Corps assets are located within the United States Army Reserve. This Leavenworth Paper was prepared by the USAA Staff Officer serving with the Combat Studies Institute, USACGSC, after a number of requests from USAA Chemical Corps officers for a historical study on the nature of chemical warfare in World War I. Despite originally being published in 1984, this Leavenworth Paper also meets the needs of the Total Army in its preparations to fight, if necessary, on a battlefield where chemical agents might be employed. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: The Chemical Warfare Service: Organizing for war , 1959 |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Callinicus; a Defence of Chemical Warfare John Burdon Sanderson Haldane, 1925 |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Why Evolution is True Jerry A. Coyne, 2010-01-14 For all the discussion in the media about creationism and 'Intelligent Design', virtually nothing has been said about the evidence in question - the evidence for evolution by natural selection. Yet, as this succinct and important book shows, that evidence is vast, varied, and magnificent, and drawn from many disparate fields of science. The very latest research is uncovering a stream of evidence revealing evolution in action - from the actual observation of a species splitting into two, to new fossil discoveries, to the deciphering of the evidence stored in our genome. Why Evolution is True weaves together the many threads of modern work in genetics, palaeontology, geology, molecular biology, anatomy, and development to demonstrate the 'indelible stamp' of the processes first proposed by Darwin. It is a crisp, lucid, and accessible statement that will leave no one with an open mind in any doubt about the truth of evolution. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Defending the U.S. Air Transportation System Against Chemical and Biological Threats National Research Council, Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences, National Materials Advisory Board, Committee on Assessment of Security Technologies for Transportation, 2006-01-10 Historically, most terrorist attacks on civilian targets have involved the use of firearms or explosives, and current defensive strategies are aimed at preventing attacks perpetrated by such means. However, the use of the nerve agent sarin in 1995 to attack the Tokyo subway system, the use of the U.S. mail in 2001 to distribute letters containing anthrax spores, and the discovery in 2004 of the biological toxin ricin in U.S. Senate Office Buildings in Washington, D.C., demonstrate that chemical and biological agents have been added to terrorists' arsenals. Attacks involving chemical/biological agents are of great concern, not only because of the potential for mass casualties but also because there is no strategy or technology fielded today that can respond adequately to this threat. As the United States and other countries reassess the security measures they have in place to prevent or defend against such attacks, the risks to the air transportation system as a primary target become clear. Defending the U.S. Air Transportation System Against Chemical and Biological Threats is an exploration of defensive strategies that could be used to protect air transportation spaces (specifically, airport terminals and aircraft) against attack with chemical or biological agents and makes recommendations with respect to the role of TSA in implementing these strategies. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Chemical and Biological Warfare Seymour M. Hersh, 1968 |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: A History of Chemical Warfare K. Coleman, 2005-05-23 This book provides an analysis of the development and deployment of chemical weapons from 700BC to the present day. The First World War is examined in detail since it remains the most significant experience of the chemical threat, but the Second World War, and post-war conflicts are also evaluated. Additionally, protocols attempting to control the proliferation and use of chemical weapons are assessed. Finally, the book examines the threat (real and imagined) from a chemical warfare attack today by rationally assessing to what extent terrorist groups around the world are capable of making and using such weapons. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: The Chemical Age Frank A. von Hippel, 2020-09-04 This sweeping history reveals how the use of chemicals has saved lives, destroyed species, and radically changed our planet: “Remarkable . . . highly recommended.” —Choice In The Chemical Age, ecologist Frank A. von Hippel explores humanity’s long and uneasy coexistence with pests, and how the battles to exterminate them have shaped our modern world. He also tells the captivating story of the scientists who waged war on famine and disease with chemistry. Beginning with the potato blight tragedy of the 1840s, which led scientists on an urgent mission to prevent famine using pesticides, von Hippel traces the history of pesticide use to the 1960s, when Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring revealed that those same chemicals were insidiously damaging our health and driving species toward extinction. Telling the story in vivid detail, von Hippel showcases the thrills—and complex consequences—of scientific discovery. He describes the creation of chemicals used to kill pests—and people. And, finally, he shows how scientists turned those wartime chemicals on the landscape at a massive scale, prompting the vital environmental movement that continues today. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: The A to Z of Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Warfare Benjamin C. Garrett, John Hart, 2009-09-16 Human experience with nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) warfare has been limited, especially in comparison to conventional forms of warfare. Our experience with nuclear warfare is confined to a period of less than one week during the end of World War II, when the United States successfully used two nuclear weapons against targets in Japan. The course of biological warfare and modern use of biological weapons are difficult to track owing to the difficulty of differentiating deliberate use from natural outbreaks. However, the keen potential of biological weapons in acts of terror was shown in the mass disruption caused in the fall 2001 experience in the U.S. with the release of anthrax through the American postal system. Chemical weapons have been used in a handful of conflicts since their introduction to modern warfare during World War I, most recently during the Iran-Iraq War during the 1980s. Despite this limited experience, NBC warfare continues to exert a certain fascination among states. The A to Z of Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Warfare covers the development and use of NBC weapons as well as efforts to limit or control the use of these weapons through a chronology, a bibliography, an introductory essay, and dictionary entries. Over 500 cross-referenced dictionary entries provide a unique selection of terms related to NBC warfare, ranging from basic descriptions of substances used in NBC warfare to details on incidents and episodes where NBC weapons were used. Entries are structured around historical events, persons important to NBC warfare, countries where such weapons have been developed or used, and international treaties and treaty-related organizations. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: Toxic Exposures Susan L. Smith, 2017-01-17 Mustard gas is typically associated with the horrors of World War I battlefields and trenches, where chemical weapons were responsible for tens of thousands of deaths. Few realize, however, that mustard gas had a resurgence during the Second World War, when its uses and effects were widespread and insidious. Toxic Exposures tells the shocking story of how the United States and its allies intentionally subjected thousands of their own servicemen to poison gas as part of their preparation for chemical warfare. In addition, it reveals the racialized dimension of these mustard gas experiments, as scientists tested whether the effects of toxic exposure might vary between Asian, Hispanic, black, and white Americans. Drawing from once-classified American and Canadian government records, military reports, scientists’ papers, and veterans’ testimony, historian Susan L. Smith explores not only the human cost of this research, but also the environmental degradation caused by ocean dumping of unwanted mustard gas. As she assesses the poisonous legacy of these chemical warfare experiments, Smith also considers their surprising impact on the origins of chemotherapy as cancer treatment and the development of veterans’ rights movements. Toxic Exposures thus traces the scars left when the interests of national security and scientific curiosity battled with medical ethics and human rights. |
| a laboratory history of chemical warfare agents: The Chemists' War Michael Freemantle, 2015 The 1914-18 war has been referred to as the 'chemists' war' and to commemorate the centenary this collection of essays will examine various facets of the role of chemistry in the First World War. Written by an experienced science writer, this will be of interest to scientists and historians with an interest in this technologically challenging time. |
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Reston Stable Isotope Laboratory (RSIL) | U.S. Geological Survey
Jan 1, 2018 · · H, C, N, O, & S forensic-quality, stable isotope-ratio analyses of water, rock, and biological samples for environmental studies · noble gas analyses of water for groundwater …
2304 Hunters Woods Plz - Reston, VA | Quest
Visit the Quest Diagnostics location at 2304 Hunters Woods Plz in Reston, VA to complete sample collection for doctor-ordered or self-purchased lab work.
Home | Sunrise Laboratories
HomeEveryone deserves to live a healthy life, regardless of age, income, insurance coverage, or location. SML provides access to laboratory testing and empowers patients to make informed …
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Laboratory - Wikipedia
The Schuster Laboratory, University of Manchester (a physics laboratory) A laboratory (UK: / ləˈbɒrətəri /; US: / ˈlæbrətɔːri /; colloquially lab) is a facility that provides controlled conditions …
USGS Groundwater Dating Lab
The Reston Groundwater Dating Laboratory provides analytical services for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6) and other dissolved gases including N 2, Ar, CO 2, CH 4, O …
Inside Reston Safeway Store - Quest Diagnostics
DetailWe offer broad access to clinical testing services through our national network of laboratories in most major metropolitan areas as well as approximately 2,000 patient locations. …
