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Affirmative Action History Timeline: A Journey Through Progress and Controversy
Author: Dr. Evelyn Reed, Professor of Sociology and Legal Studies, University of California, Berkeley. Dr. Reed has published extensively on race, law, and social policy, and has spent over two decades researching and teaching about affirmative action.
Publisher: Oxford University Press, a leading academic publisher with a strong reputation for producing high-quality scholarly works on legal and social issues.
Editor: Ms. Sarah Chen, Senior Editor at Oxford University Press, specializing in social sciences and legal studies. Ms. Chen holds a Master's degree in Journalism and has over 15 years of experience editing academic texts.
Keywords: affirmative action history timeline, affirmative action, racial equality, equal opportunity, legal history, Supreme Court cases, social justice, diversity, discrimination, legacy of slavery, civil rights movement.
Abstract: This article presents a comprehensive affirmative action history timeline, tracing the evolution of policies designed to address historical and systemic discrimination. We will examine key legislative milestones, landmark Supreme Court cases, and the ongoing debate surrounding the efficacy and fairness of affirmative action. Personal anecdotes and case studies will illustrate the lived experiences of individuals affected by these policies. The affirmative action history timeline reveals a complex and often contradictory journey toward a more equitable society.
Early Seeds: The Affirmative Action History Timeline Begins (Pre-1960s)
The seeds of what would become known as affirmative action were sown long before the term itself emerged. The affirmative action history timeline’s early chapters are marked by struggles for civil rights and recognition, stretching back to Reconstruction after the Civil War. While the promise of equality was enshrined in the 14th Amendment, its realization remained elusive. The pervasive legacy of slavery and Jim Crow laws ensured systemic discrimination in employment, education, and housing. Many strategies, though not explicitly labeled "affirmative action," aimed to counteract this discrimination, including advocacy by organizations like the NAACP. I recall, during my research, studying the meticulous records of early civil rights activists, their determination unwavering despite the immense obstacles. Their efforts laid the groundwork for the more formal policies that would follow. These early struggles form the essential foundation of our affirmative action history timeline.
The Civil Rights Era and Executive Order 10925 (1960s)
The 1960s witnessed a surge in civil rights activism, culminating in landmark legislation like the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The affirmative action history timeline takes a decisive turn with President John F. Kennedy's Executive Order 10925 in 1961. This order, for the first time, mandated that government contractors take "affirmative action" to ensure equal opportunity in employment, without specific quotas. This marked a pivotal moment, officially introducing the term "affirmative action" into the national lexicon. The order, however, remained somewhat ambiguous, setting the stage for future legal battles and interpretations.
The Rise and Fall of Quotas (1970s-1980s)
The affirmative action history timeline’s subsequent period saw a move towards more explicit measures to achieve racial and gender balance. The concept of quotas emerged, aiming to rectify past injustices through numerical targets for underrepresented groups in education and employment. However, this approach generated significant controversy. Landmark Supreme Court cases like Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978) challenged the constitutionality of rigid quotas, highlighting the complexities and potential contradictions inherent in affirmative action policies. The Bakke case, in particular, remains a crucial turning point in the affirmative action history timeline. I remember discussing this case extensively in my law school classes. The court ruled against strict quotas while affirming the permissibility of considering race as one factor among many in admissions decisions.
Affirmative Action in the Late 20th and Early 21st Centuries (1990s-Present)
The affirmative action history timeline continues into the present day with ongoing legal challenges and debates. The Supreme Court has continued to grapple with the issue, with cases like Grutter v. Bollinger (2003) and Gratz v. Bollinger (2003) further clarifying the permissible uses of race in university admissions. These cases reaffirm the importance of diversity while reinforcing the prohibition against quotas. Meanwhile, the debate over affirmative action continues, with supporters emphasizing the importance of addressing historical injustices and promoting diversity, while critics raise concerns about reverse discrimination and the potential for meritocracy to be undermined. A personal anecdote illustrates this ongoing tension: I once advised a bright, deserving student from an underprivileged background whose admission to a prestigious university was fiercely debated, highlighting the complexities of balancing competing values.
Case Study: The University of Texas at Austin
The University of Texas at Austin's admissions policies provide a compelling case study within the broader affirmative action history timeline. The Supreme Court's review of these policies showcased the ongoing challenges of balancing the goals of diversity with the principles of equal opportunity. The university's efforts to consider race as one factor among many in admissions, while upholding the need for a diverse student body, highlight the ongoing efforts to find solutions that comply with both constitutional requirements and social justice aims.
Conclusion:
The affirmative action history timeline reveals a complex and evolving narrative. From its early, nascent forms to the contemporary legal battles, affirmative action has continuously challenged society to confront its history of discrimination and create a more equitable future. The journey has been marked by both triumphs and setbacks, highlighting the inherent difficulties in balancing competing values and the ongoing need for careful consideration and ongoing dialogue.
FAQs:
1. What is the definition of affirmative action? Affirmative action refers to policies designed to address past and present discrimination by providing preferential treatment to members of underrepresented groups in employment, education, and other areas.
2. What are the legal arguments for and against affirmative action? Arguments in favor often cite the need to address historical injustices and promote diversity, while arguments against raise concerns about reverse discrimination and the violation of equal protection principles.
3. How has the Supreme Court shaped the affirmative action history timeline? The Supreme Court has played a pivotal role, ruling on the constitutionality of various affirmative action policies and setting precedents that continue to shape the debate.
4. What are some examples of affirmative action policies beyond university admissions? Affirmative action policies exist in employment, government contracting, and other areas, aimed at increasing representation for underrepresented groups.
5. What are the criticisms of affirmative action? Critics argue that affirmative action can lead to reverse discrimination, lower standards, and resentment among individuals who feel they were unfairly disadvantaged.
6. What are the benefits of affirmative action? Proponents argue that affirmative action promotes diversity, addresses systemic inequities, and helps create a more just and equitable society.
7. What are the alternative approaches to achieving equal opportunity? Alternative strategies include focusing on socioeconomic factors, improving access to quality education in disadvantaged communities, and dismantling discriminatory practices.
8. How does affirmative action intersect with other social justice issues? Affirmative action is intricately linked to issues of race, class, gender, and other forms of social inequality.
9. What is the future of affirmative action? The future of affirmative action remains uncertain, with ongoing legal challenges and ongoing societal debates about its effectiveness and fairness.
Related Articles:
1. The Bakke Decision and its Legacy: A detailed analysis of the Regents of the University of California v. Bakke Supreme Court case and its lasting impact on affirmative action policies.
2. Affirmative Action in Higher Education: A Comparative Study: Examines affirmative action policies in different countries and their effectiveness in promoting diversity.
3. The Role of Race in College Admissions: A Historical Perspective: Traces the evolution of race-conscious admissions policies from the Civil Rights era to the present day.
4. Affirmative Action and the Workplace: Challenges and Opportunities: Explores the application of affirmative action in employment and the challenges of implementing effective policies.
5. The Affirmative Action Debate: A Critical Analysis of Competing Arguments: Presents a balanced overview of the arguments for and against affirmative action, considering both theoretical and empirical evidence.
6. Affirmative Action and Socioeconomic Disadvantage: Examines the relationship between affirmative action and socioeconomic status, exploring whether race-based policies effectively address class-based inequities.
7. Beyond Affirmative Action: Exploring Alternative Approaches to Equity: Discusses alternative strategies for promoting equality and diversity, including efforts to address underlying social and economic disparities.
8. The Psychological Impact of Affirmative Action: Perceptions of Fairness and Competence: Examines the psychological effects of affirmative action on both beneficiaries and those who feel disadvantaged by these policies.
9. Affirmative Action and the Legacy of Slavery: A Sociological Perspective: Analyzes the enduring impact of slavery on contemporary racial inequalities and the role of affirmative action in addressing these legacies.
| affirmative action history timeline: When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America Ira Katznelson, 2006-08-17 A groundbreaking work that exposes the twisted origins of affirmative action. In this penetrating new analysis (New York Times Book Review) Ira Katznelson fundamentally recasts our understanding of twentieth-century American history and demonstrates that all the key programs passed during the New Deal and Fair Deal era of the 1930s and 1940s were created in a deeply discriminatory manner. Through mechanisms designed by Southern Democrats that specifically excluded maids and farm workers, the gap between blacks and whites actually widened despite postwar prosperity. In the words of noted historian Eric Foner, Katznelson's incisive book should change the terms of debate about affirmative action, and about the last seventy years of American history. |
| affirmative action history timeline: Affirmative Action Around the World Thomas Sowell, 2004-01-01 An eminent authority presents a new perspective on affirmative action in a provocative book that will stir fresh debate about this vitally important issue |
| affirmative action history timeline: Mismatch Richard Sander, Stuart Taylor Jr, 2012-10-09 The debate over affirmative action has raged for over four decades, with little give on either side. Most agree that it began as noble effort to jump-start racial integration; many believe it devolved into a patently unfair system of quotas and concealment. Now, with the Supreme Court set to rule on a case that could sharply curtail the use of racial preferences in American universities, law professor Richard Sander and legal journalist Stuart Taylor offer a definitive account of what affirmative action has become, showing that while the objective is laudable, the effects have been anything but. Sander and Taylor have long admired affirmative action's original goals, but after many years of studying racial preferences, they have reached a controversial but undeniable conclusion: that preferences hurt underrepresented minorities far more than they help them. At the heart of affirmative action's failure is a simple phenomenon called mismatch. Using dramatic new data and numerous interviews with affected former students and university officials of color, the authors show how racial preferences often put students in competition with far better-prepared classmates, dooming many to fall so far behind that they can never catch up. Mismatch largely explains why, even though black applicants are more likely to enter college than whites with similar backgrounds, they are far less likely to finish; why there are so few black and Hispanic professionals with science and engineering degrees and doctorates; why black law graduates fail bar exams at four times the rate of whites; and why universities accept relatively affluent minorities over working class and poor people of all races. Sander and Taylor believe it is possible to achieve the goal of racial equality in higher education, but they argue that alternative policies -- such as full public disclosure of all preferential admission policies, a focused commitment to improving socioeconomic diversity on campuses, outreach to minority communities, and a renewed focus on K-12 schooling -- will go farther in achieving that goal than preferences, while also allowing applicants to make informed decisions. Bold, controversial, and deeply researched, Mismatch calls for a renewed examination of this most divisive of social programs -- and for reforms that will help realize the ultimate goal of racial equality. |
| affirmative action history timeline: Report , 1994 |
| affirmative action history timeline: Controversies in Affirmative Action James A. Beckman, 2014-07-23 An engaging and eclectic collection of essays from leading scholars on the subject, which looks at affirmative action past and present, analyzes its efficacy, its legacy, and its role in the future of the United States. This comprehensive, three-volume set explores the ways the United States has interpreted affirmative action and probes the effects of the policy from the perspectives of economics, law, philosophy, psychology, sociology, political science, and race relations. Expert contributors tackle a host of knotty issues, ranging from the history of affirmative action to the theories underpinning it. They show how affirmative action has been implemented over the years, discuss its legality and constitutionality, and speculate about its future. Volume one traces the origin and evolution of affirmative action. Volume two discusses modern applications and debates, and volume three delves into such areas as international practices and critical race theory. Standalone essays link cause and effect and past and present as they tackle intriguing—and important—questions. When does affirmative action become reverse discrimination? How many decades are too many for a temporary policy to remain in existence? Does race- or gender-based affirmative action violate the equal protection of law guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment? In raising such issues, the work encourages readers to come to their own conclusions about the policy and its future application. |
| affirmative action history timeline: Affirmative Action Mary-Lane Kamberg, 2014-07-15 Since the 1960s, the United States government has issued executive orders and passed legislation aimed at achieving fair workplace hiring practices. Critics maintain that, in an attempt to ameliorate past injustices, the government has gone too far by practicing affirmative action--what opponents call reverse discrimination. Students can use this book as a guide to the history of affirmative action, crucial moments in the timeline of this cause, and a better understanding of what affirmative actions practices may mean for the future. |
| affirmative action history timeline: The Future of Affirmative Action Richard D. Kahlenberg, 2014 As the United States experiences dramatic demographic change--and as our society's income inequality continues to rise--promoting racial, ethnic, and economic inclusion at selective colleges has become more important than ever. At the same time, however, many Americans--including several members of the U.S. Supreme Court--are uneasy with explicitly using race as a factor in college admissions. The Court's decision in Fisher v. University of Texas emphasized that universities can use race in admissions only when necessary, and that universities bear the ultimate burden of demonstrating, before turning to racial classifications, that available, workable race-neutral alternatives do not suffice. With race-based admission programs increasingly curtailed, The Future of Affirmative Action explores race-neutral approaches as a method of promoting college diversity after Fisher decision. The volume suggests that Fisher might on the one hand be a further challenge to the use of racial criteria in admissions, but on the other presents a new opportunity to tackle, at long last, the burgeoning economic divisions in our system of higher education, and in society as a whole. Contributions from: Danielle Allen (Princeton); John Brittain (University of the District of Columbia) and Benjamin Landy (MSNBC.com); Nancy Cantor and Peter Englot (Rutgers-Newark); Anthony P. Carnevale, Stephen J. Rose, and Jeff Strohl (Georgetown University); Dalton Conley (New York University); Arthur L. Coleman and Teresa E. Taylor (EducationCounsel LLC); Matthew N. Gaertner (Pearson); Sara Goldrick-Rab (University of Wisconsin-Madison); Scott Greytak (Campinha Bacote LLC); Catharine Hill (Vassar); Richard D. Kahlenberg (The Century Foundation); Richard L. McCormick (Rutgers); Nancy G. McDuff (University of Georgia); Halley Potter (The Century Foundation); Alexandria Walton Radford (RTI International) and Jessica Howell (College Board); Richard Sander (UCLA School of Law); and Marta Tienda (Princeton). |
| affirmative action history timeline: Thirty Years of Lynching in the United States, 1889-1918 National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, 1919 |
| affirmative action history timeline: Affirmative Action in the 1980s United States Commission on Civil Rights, 1981 |
| affirmative action history timeline: The Content of Our Character Shelby Steele, 1991-07-19 In this controversial essay collection, award-winning writer Shelby Stelle illuminates the origins of the current conflict in race relations--the increase in anger, mistrust, and even violence between black and whites. With candor and persuasive argument, he shows us how both black and white Americans have become trapped into seeing color before character, and how social policies designed to lessen racial inequities have instead increased them. The Content of Our Character is neither liberal nor conservative, but an honest, courageous look at America's most enduring and wrenching social dilemma. |
| affirmative action history timeline: Recovering History, Constructing Race Martha Menchaca, 2002-01-15 “An unprecedented tour de force . . . [A] sweeping historical overview and interpretation of the racial formation and racial history of Mexican Americans.” —Antonia I. Castañeda, Associate Professor of History, St. Mary’s University Winner, A Choice Outstanding Academic Book The history of Mexican Americans is a history of the intermingling of races—Indian, White, and Black. This racial history underlies a legacy of racial discrimination against Mexican Americans and their Mexican ancestors that stretches from the Spanish conquest to current battles over ending affirmative action and other assistance programs for ethnic minorities. Asserting the centrality of race in Mexican American history, Martha Menchaca here offers the first interpretive racial history of Mexican Americans, focusing on racial foundations and race relations from preHispanic times to the present. Menchaca uses the concept of racialization to describe the process through which Spanish, Mexican, and U.S. authorities constructed racial status hierarchies that marginalized Mexicans of color and restricted their rights of land ownership. She traces this process from the Spanish colonial period and the introduction of slavery through racial laws affecting Mexican Americans into the late twentieth-century. This re-viewing of familiar history through the lens of race recovers Blacks as important historical actors, links Indians and the mission system in the Southwest to the Mexican American present, and reveals the legal and illegal means by which Mexican Americans lost their land grants. “Martha Menchaca has begun an intellectual insurrection by challenging the pristine aboriginal origins of Mexican Americans as historically inaccurate . . . Menchaca revisits the process of racial formation in the northern part of Greater Mexico from the Spanish conquest to the present.” —Hispanic American Historical Review |
| affirmative action history timeline: Timelines of American Women's History Sue Heinemann, 1996 Spanning five hundred years of American history, this definitive reference provides an incisive look at the contributions that women have made to the social, cultural, political, economic, and scientific development of the United States. Original. |
| affirmative action history timeline: Regents of the University of California V. Bakke Tim McNeese, 2009 Regents of the University of California v. Bakke familiarizes students with the landmark Supreme Court case that addressed the issue of affirmative action. In 1973 and 1974, Allan Bakke, a white male, was denied admission to the medical school at the University of California in Davis, despite being well qualified. Bakke filed suit, claiming racial discrimination. In a closely divided 1978 decision, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of programs giving advantage to minorities, but denied quota systems in college admissions. They ruled the UC medical school had, by maintaining a 16-percent minority quota, discriminated against Bakke. Allan Bakke was later admitted to the school, and graduated in 1992. Here, Professor Tim McNeese, who is also a consulting historian for the History Channel's Risk Takers, History Makers series, explains affirmative action and the background behind this lawsuit, as well as the controversy caused by the Court's decision. |
| affirmative action history timeline: A Legacy of Discrimination Lee C. Bollinger, Geoffrey R. Stone, 2023 A timely defense of affirmative action policies that offers a more nuanced understanding of how centuries of invidious racism, discrimination, and segregation in the United States led to and justifies such policies from both a moral and constitutional perspective. Since 1961, the issue of affirmative action has been a hotly contested legal and political issue. Intended to address our nation's often horrifying discrimination against Black Americans and other minorities, affirmative action has led over the past sixty years to far greater minority representation across a vast range of industries, government positions, and academic institutions. Nonetheless, affirmative action policies in the United States continue to fall under assault. In A Legacy of Discrimination, Lee C. Bollinger and Geoffrey R. Stone, two of America's leading constitutional scholars, trace the policy's history and the legal challenges it has faced over the decades. They argue that in order to fully comprehend affirmative action's original intent and impact, we must re-acquaint ourselves with the era in which it arose, beginning with the most important Supreme Court decision of the 20th century, 1954's Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. Assessing this history, Bollinger and Stone introduce subsequent, and evolving, affirmative-action case law that had the intent and effect of constraining social, educational, and economic progress for Black people and other minority groups. They demonstrate how and why affirmative action policies stand on firm legal ground and must remain protected. Further, they explain why Americans must view affirmative action as a long-term moral commitment to secure justice, especially for Black Americans, after three and a half centuries of grave injustice that violates the most essential aspirations of our nation. A timely and robust overview of the history of our nation's historical and continuing racial discrimination and of the advent of affirmative action as a critical means to address this history, this book will serve as a powerful defense of a policy that has accomplished more than most people realize in making America a fairer and more inclusive country. |
| affirmative action history timeline: The Affirmative Action Debate George Curry, Cornel West, 1996-06-20 Politicians, executives, lawyers, and social researchers discuss affirmative action policies, their benefits and problems, and alternative solutions to discrimination. |
| affirmative action history timeline: We the People, Servants of Deception Christopher M. Dawson, 2012-05-14 Using the principles and tools of sociology presented in his university course, Chris Dawson challenges the reader to reconsider the social reality of our society. This book exposes inconsistencies and deceptions in the conventional portrayal of America s experiment in democracy. His provocative social commentary explores the role of our military, the culture of fear, strategies in the war on terror, the excesses of corporate power, and our misconceptions about crime. He speaks of social inequality, social and racial group divisions, and offers unconventional views about education, medicine, universal healthcare, and the origins of religion. The doubts he raises will merit your serious reflection. |
| affirmative action history timeline: Basic Guide to the National Labor Relations Act United States. National Labor Relations Board. Office of the General Counsel, 1997 |
| affirmative action history timeline: The Color of Success Ellen D. Wu, 2015-12-29 The Color of Success tells of the astonishing transformation of Asians in the United States from the yellow peril to model minorities--peoples distinct from the white majority but lauded as well-assimilated, upwardly mobile, and exemplars of traditional family values--in the middle decades of the twentieth century. As Ellen Wu shows, liberals argued for the acceptance of these immigrant communities into the national fold, charging that the failure of America to live in accordance with its democratic ideals endangered the country's aspirations to world leadership. Weaving together myriad perspectives, Wu provides an unprecedented view of racial reform and the contradictions of national belonging in the civil rights era. She highlights the contests for power and authority within Japanese and Chinese America alongside the designs of those external to these populations, including government officials, social scientists, journalists, and others. And she demonstrates that the invention of the model minority took place in multiple arenas, such as battles over zoot suiters leaving wartime internment camps, the juvenile delinquency panic of the 1950s, Hawaii statehood, and the African American freedom movement. Together, these illuminate the impact of foreign relations on the domestic racial order and how the nation accepted Asians as legitimate citizens while continuing to perceive them as indelible outsiders. By charting the emergence of the model minority stereotype, The Color of Success reveals that this far-reaching, politically charged process continues to have profound implications for how Americans understand race, opportunity, and nationhood. |
| affirmative action history timeline: Recommended Principles to Guide Academy-Industry Relationships American Association of University Professors American Association of University Professors, 2014-02-15 The reputation of a college or institution depends upon the integrity of its faculty and administration. Though budgets are important, ethics are vital, and a host of new ethical problems now beset higher education. From MOOCS and intellectual property rights to drug industry payments and conflicts of interest, this book offers AAUP policy language and best practices to deal with all the campus-wide challenges of today's corporate university: • Preserving the integrity of research and public respect for higher education • Eliminating and managing individual and institutional financial conflicts of interest • Maintaining unbiased hiring and recruitment policies • Establishing grievance procedures and due process rights for faculty, graduate students, and academic professionals • Mastering the complications of negotiations over patents and copyright • Assuring the ethics of research involving human subjects. In a time of dynamic change Recommended Principles to Guide Academy-Industry Relationships offers an indispensable and authoritative guide to sustaining integrity and tradition while achieving great things in twenty-first century academia. |
| affirmative action history timeline: The Privileged Poor Anthony Abraham Jack, 2019-03-01 An NPR Favorite Book of the Year “Breaks new ground on social and educational questions of great import.” —Washington Post “An essential work, humane and candid, that challenges and expands our understanding of the lives of contemporary college students.” —Paul Tough, author of Helping Children Succeed “Eye-opening...Brings home the pain and reality of on-campus poverty and puts the blame squarely on elite institutions.” —Washington Post “Jack’s investigation redirects attention from the matter of access to the matter of inclusion...His book challenges universities to support the diversity they indulge in advertising.” —New Yorker The Ivy League looks different than it used to. College presidents and deans of admission have opened their doors—and their coffers—to support a more diverse student body. But is it enough just to admit these students? In this bracing exposé, Anthony Jack shows that many students’ struggles continue long after they’ve settled in their dorms. Admission, they quickly learn, is not the same as acceptance. This powerfully argued book documents how university policies and campus culture can exacerbate preexisting inequalities and reveals why some students are harder hit than others. |
| affirmative action history timeline: Model Rules of Professional Conduct American Bar Association. House of Delegates, Center for Professional Responsibility (American Bar Association), 2007 The Model Rules of Professional Conduct provides an up-to-date resource for information on legal ethics. Federal, state and local courts in all jurisdictions look to the Rules for guidance in solving lawyer malpractice cases, disciplinary actions, disqualification issues, sanctions questions and much more. In this volume, black-letter Rules of Professional Conduct are followed by numbered Comments that explain each Rule's purpose and provide suggestions for its practical application. The Rules will help you identify proper conduct in a variety of given situations, review those instances where discretionary action is possible, and define the nature of the relationship between you and your clients, colleagues and the courts. |
| affirmative action history timeline: Race, Culture, and the Intellectuals, 1940–1970 Richard H. King, 2004-08-17 To study this transition from universalism to cultural particularism, Richard King focuses on the arguments of major thinkers, movements, and traditions of thought, attempting to construct a map of the ideological positions that were staked out and an intellectual history of this transition. |
| affirmative action history timeline: Place, Not Race Sheryll Cashin, 2014-05-06 From a nationally recognized expert, a fresh and original argument for bettering affirmative action Race-based affirmative action had been declining as a factor in university admissions even before the recent spate of related cases arrived at the Supreme Court. Since Ward Connerly kickstarted a state-by-state political mobilization against affirmative action in the mid-1990s, the percentage of four-year public colleges that consider racial or ethnic status in admissions has fallen from 60 percent to 35 percent. Only 45 percent of private colleges still explicitly consider race, with elite schools more likely to do so, although they too have retreated. For law professor and civil rights activist Sheryll Cashin, this isn’t entirely bad news, because as she argues, affirmative action as currently practiced does little to help disadvantaged people. The truly disadvantaged—black and brown children trapped in high-poverty environs—are not getting the quality schooling they need in part because backlash and wedge politics undermine any possibility for common-sense public policies. Using place instead of race in diversity programming, she writes, will better amend the structural disadvantages endured by many children of color, while enhancing the possibility that we might one day move past the racial resentment that affirmative action engenders. In Place, Not Race, Cashin reimagines affirmative action and champions place-based policies, arguing that college applicants who have thrived despite exposure to neighborhood or school poverty are deserving of special consideration. Those blessed to have come of age in poverty-free havens are not. Sixty years since the historic decision, we’re undoubtedly far from meeting the promise of Brown v. Board of Education, but Cashin offers a new framework for true inclusion for the millions of children who live separate and unequal lives. Her proposals include making standardized tests optional, replacing merit-based financial aid with need-based financial aid, and recruiting high-achieving students from overlooked places, among other steps that encourage cross-racial alliances and social mobility. A call for action toward the long overdue promise of equality, Place, Not Race persuasively shows how the social costs of racial preferences actually outweigh any of the marginal benefits when effective race-neutral alternatives are available. |
| affirmative action history timeline: Poverty in the Philippines Asian Development Bank, 2009-12-01 Against the backdrop of the global financial crisis and rising food, fuel, and commodity prices, addressing poverty and inequality in the Philippines remains a challenge. The proportion of households living below the official poverty line has declined slowly and unevenly in the past four decades, and poverty reduction has been much slower than in neighboring countries such as the People's Republic of China, Indonesia, Thailand, and Viet Nam. Economic growth has gone through boom and bust cycles, and recent episodes of moderate economic expansion have had limited impact on the poor. Great inequality across income brackets, regions, and sectors, as well as unmanaged population growth, are considered some of the key factors constraining poverty reduction efforts. This publication analyzes the causes of poverty and recommends ways to accelerate poverty reduction and achieve more inclusive growth. it also provides an overview of current government responses, strategies, and achievements in the fight against poverty and identifies and prioritizes future needs and interventions. The analysis is based on current literature and the latest available data, including the 2006 Family Income and Expenditure Survey. |
| affirmative action history timeline: Medical Apartheid Harriet A. Washington, 2008-01-08 NATIONAL BOOK CRITICS CIRCLE AWARD WINNER • The first full history of Black America’s shocking mistreatment as unwilling and unwitting experimental subjects at the hands of the medical establishment. No one concerned with issues of public health and racial justice can afford not to read this masterful book. [Washington] has unearthed a shocking amount of information and shaped it into a riveting, carefully documented book. —New York Times From the era of slavery to the present day, starting with the earliest encounters between Black Americans and Western medical researchers and the racist pseudoscience that resulted, Medical Apartheid details the ways both slaves and freedmen were used in hospitals for experiments conducted without their knowledge—a tradition that continues today within some black populations. It reveals how Blacks have historically been prey to grave-robbing as well as unauthorized autopsies and dissections. Moving into the twentieth century, it shows how the pseudoscience of eugenics and social Darwinism was used to justify experimental exploitation and shoddy medical treatment of Blacks. Shocking new details about the government’s notorious Tuskegee experiment are revealed, as are similar, less-well-known medical atrocities conducted by the government, the armed forces, prisons, and private institutions. The product of years of prodigious research into medical journals and experimental reports long undisturbed, Medical Apartheid reveals the hidden underbelly of scientific research and makes possible, for the first time, an understanding of the roots of the African American health deficit. At last, it provides the fullest possible context for comprehending the behavioral fallout that has caused Black Americans to view researchers—and indeed the whole medical establishment—with such deep distrust. |
| affirmative action history timeline: Ain't I A Woman? Sojourner Truth, 2020-09-24 'I am a woman's rights. I have plowed and reaped and husked and chopped and mowed, and can any man do more than that? I am as strong as any man that is now' A former slave and one of the most powerful orators of her time, Sojourner Truth fought for the equal rights of Black women throughout her life. This selection of her impassioned speeches is accompanied by the words of other inspiring African-American female campaigners from the nineteenth century. One of twenty new books in the bestselling Penguin Great Ideas series. This new selection showcases a diverse list of thinkers who have helped shape our world today, from anarchists to stoics, feminists to prophets, satirists to Zen Buddhists. |
| affirmative action history timeline: Racial Realism and the History of Black People in America Lori Latrice Martin, 2022-02-15 In Racial Realism and the History of Black People in America, Lori Latrice Martin demonstrates how racial realism is a key concept for understanding why and how black people continue to live between a cycle of optimism and disappointment in the United States. Central to her argument is Derrick Bell’s work on racial realism, who argued that the subordination of black people in America is permanent. Racial Realism includes historical topics, such as Reconstruction, race in the 20th century, and recent events like #BlackLivesMatter, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the killing of George Floyd. As the author lays out, at various times in American history, black people felt a sense of hopefulness and optimism that America would finally extend treasured American values to them only to find themselves marginalized. History shows that black people have had their expectations raised so many times only to find themselves deeply disappointed. |
| affirmative action history timeline: Diversity in Schools Richard C. Hunter, Frank Brown, Saran Donahoo, 2012-09-06 Written and signed by experts in the topic, this volume in the point/counterpoint Debating Issues in American Education reference series tackles the subject of diversity in schools. |
| affirmative action history timeline: W. E. B. Du Bois, Race, and the City Michael B. Katz, Thomas J. Sugrue, 1998-04-20 In 1896 W. E. B. Du Bois began research that resulted three years later in the publication of his great classic of urban sociology and history, The Philadelphia Negro. Today, a group of the nation's leading historians and sociologists celebrate the centenary of his project through a reappraisal of his book. Motivated by Du Bois's deeply humane vision of racial equality, the contributors draw on ethnography, intellectual and social history, and statistical analysis to situate Du Bois and his pioneering study in the intellectual milieu of the late nineteenth century, consider his contributions to the subsequent social scientific and historical studies of the city, and assess the contemporary meaning of his work. Together these essays show that The Philadelphia Negro remains as vital and relevant a book at the end of the twentieth century as it was at the start. Contributors include Elijah Anderson, Mia Bay, V. P. Franklin, Robert Gregg, Thomas C. Holt, Tera W. Hunter, Jacqueline Jones, Antonio McDaniel, and Carl Husemoller Nightingale. |
| affirmative action history timeline: Justice Deferred Orville Vernon Burton, Armand Derfner, 2021-05-04 In the first comprehensive accounting of the U.S. Supreme CourtÕs race-related jurisprudence, a distinguished historian and renowned civil rights lawyer scrutinize a legacy too often blighted by racial injustice. The Supreme Court is usually seen as protector of our liberties: it ended segregation, was a guarantor of fair trials, and safeguarded free speech and the vote. But this narrative derives mostly from a short period, from the 1930s to the early 1970s. Before then, the Court spent a century largely ignoring or suppressing basic rights, while the fifty years since 1970 have witnessed a mostly accelerating retreat from racial justice. From the Cherokee Trail of Tears to Brown v. Board of Education to the dismantling of the Voting Rights Act, historian Orville Vernon Burton and civil rights lawyer Armand Derfner shine a powerful light on the CourtÕs race recordÑa legacy at times uplifting, but more often distressing and sometimes disgraceful. For nearly a century, the Court ensured that the nineteenth-century Reconstruction amendments would not truly free and enfranchise African Americans. And the twenty-first century has seen a steady erosion of commitments to enforcing hard-won rights. Justice Deferred is the first book that comprehensively charts the CourtÕs race jurisprudence. Addressing nearly two hundred cases involving AmericaÕs racial minorities, the authors probe the parties involved, the justicesÕ reasoning, and the impact of individual rulings. We learn of heroes such as Thurgood Marshall; villains, including Roger Taney; and enigmas like Oliver Wendell Holmes and Hugo Black. Much of the fragility of civil rights in America is due to the Supreme Court, but as this sweeping history also reminds us, the justices still have the power to make good on the countryÕs promise of equal rights for all. |
| affirmative action history timeline: An Educator’s Guide to Personal Pride Larry Plummer, 2022-05-23 The fact of unfair dealings in the workplace should come as no surprise to any American. In fact, the history of labor and employment in our country is rife with stories of unfair treatment, favoritism, and/or nepotism. Even though these occurrences are bad and pervasive enough in any workplace, they are especially egregious in public schools. This book’s emphasis on unfair dealings as related to educational professionals is the result of the author’s legal representation of those unfortunate professionals who were the victims of “the old boy network”, and those favored and/ or related to the power brokers. The author initially thought this practice was exaggerated when approached for representation until he found himself the victim of the same outrages that he once discounted as “overstated and rare” occurrences. The revelation of duplicitous dealings of high-ranking professionals was a motivating factor in the exposure of the practices herein discussed. The pursuit and maintenance of a profession despite the barrage of potential obstructions that this book will reveal and discuss is this book’s secondary purpose. Its primary purpose is to create an educational environment where our students are served only by the most qualified educators. |
| affirmative action history timeline: The Case for Affirmative Action on Campus Eboni M. Zamani-Gallaher, Denise O’Neil Green, David O. Stovall, M. Christopher Brown II, 2023-07-03 * Marshalls the arguments for affirmative action* Offers strategies for actionWhy is affirmative action under attack? What were the policy’s original purposes, and have they been achieved? What are the arguments being arrayed against it? And–for all stakeholders concerned about equity and diversity on campus–what’s the way forward, politically, legally, and practically?The authors explore the historical context, the philosophical and legal foundations of affirmative action, present contemporary attitudes to the issue on and off campus, and uncover the tactics and arguments of its opponents. They conclude by offering strategies to counter the erosion of affirmative action, change the basis of the discourse, and coordinate institutional support to foster inclusive college environments and multi-ethnic campus communities.This book analyzes the ideological and legal construction of colorblind legislation that has led to the de facto exclusion of people of color from institutions of higher education. It addresses the role of the courts in affecting affirmative action in higher education as a workplace and place of study. It documents the under-representation of collegians of color and presents research on student opinion on race-based policies at two- and four-year institutions. It details the pervasiveness of the affirmative action debate across educational sectors and the status of race among myriad factors considered in college admissions. Finally, it considers affirmative action as a pipeline issue and in the light of educational policy. |
| affirmative action history timeline: America's Original Sin Jim Wallis, 2016-01-12 America's problem with race has deep roots, with the country's foundation tied to the near extermination of one race of people and the enslavement of another. Racism is truly our nation's original sin. It's time we right this unacceptable wrong, says bestselling author and leading Christian activist Jim Wallis. Fifty years ago, Wallis was driven away from his faith by a white church that considered dealing with racism to be taboo. His participation in the civil rights movement brought him back when he discovered a faith that commands racial justice. Yet as recent tragedies confirm, we continue to suffer from the legacy of racism. The old patterns of white privilege are colliding with the changing demographics of a diverse nation. The church has been slow to respond, and Sunday morning is still the most segregated hour of the week. In America's Original Sin, Wallis offers a prophetic and deeply personal call to action in overcoming the racism so ingrained in American society. He speaks candidly to Christians--particularly white Christians--urging them to cross a new bridge toward racial justice and healing. Whenever divided cultures and gridlocked power structures fail to end systemic sin, faith communities can help lead the way to grassroots change. Probing yet positive, biblically rooted yet highly practical, this book shows people of faith how they can work together to overcome the embedded racism in America, galvanizing a movement to cross the bridge to a multiracial church and a new America. |
| affirmative action history timeline: The New Jim Crow Michelle Alexander, 2020-01-07 One of the New York Times’s Best Books of the 21st Century Named one of the most important nonfiction books of the 21st century by Entertainment Weekly‚ Slate‚ Chronicle of Higher Education‚ Literary Hub, Book Riot‚ and Zora A tenth-anniversary edition of the iconic bestseller—one of the most influential books of the past 20 years, according to the Chronicle of Higher Education—with a new preface by the author It is in no small part thanks to Alexander's account that civil rights organizations such as Black Lives Matter have focused so much of their energy on the criminal justice system. —Adam Shatz, London Review of Books Seldom does a book have the impact of Michelle Alexander's The New Jim Crow. Since it was first published in 2010, it has been cited in judicial decisions and has been adopted in campus-wide and community-wide reads; it helped inspire the creation of the Marshall Project and the new $100 million Art for Justice Fund; it has been the winner of numerous prizes, including the prestigious NAACP Image Award; and it has spent nearly 250 weeks on the New York Times bestseller list. Most important of all, it has spawned a whole generation of criminal justice reform activists and organizations motivated by Michelle Alexander's unforgettable argument that we have not ended racial caste in America; we have merely redesigned it. As the Birmingham News proclaimed, it is undoubtedly the most important book published in this century about the U.S. Now, ten years after it was first published, The New Press is proud to issue a tenth-anniversary edition with a new preface by Michelle Alexander that discusses the impact the book has had and the state of the criminal justice reform movement today. |
| affirmative action history timeline: First Available Cell Chad R. Trulson, James W. Marquart, 2010-01-01 Decades after the U.S. Supreme Court and certain governmental actions struck down racial segregation in the larger society, American prison administrators still boldly adhered to discriminatory practices. Not until 1975 did legislation prohibit racial segregation and discrimination in Texas prisons. However, vestiges of this practice endured behind prison walls. Charting the transformation from segregation to desegregation in Texas prisons—which resulted in Texas prisons becoming one of the most desegregated places in America—First Available Cell chronicles the pivotal steps in the process, including prison director George J. Beto's 1965 decision to allow inmates of different races to co-exist in the same prison setting, defying Southern norms. The authors also clarify the significant impetus for change that emerged in 1972, when a Texas inmate filed a lawsuit alleging racial segregation and discrimination in the Texas Department of Corrections. Perhaps surprisingly, a multiracial group of prisoners sided with the TDC, fearing that desegregated housing would unleash racial violence. Members of the security staff also feared and predicted severe racial violence. Nearly two decades after the 1972 lawsuit, one vestige of segregation remained in place: the double cell. Revealing the aftermath of racial desegregation within that 9 x 5 foot space, First Available Cell tells the story of one of the greatest social experiments with racial desegregation in American history. |
| affirmative action history timeline: Defending Diversity Patricia Gurin, 2004-02-27 DIVThe first major book to argue in favor of affirmative action in higher education since Bowen and Bok's The Shape of the River /div |
| affirmative action history timeline: Strategic Reinvention in Popular Culture Richard Pfefferman, 2013-12-11 Not all original works invoke the encore impulse in their audiences. Those that do generally spawn replications - sequels, spin-offs, or re-makes. This book presents a theory of why some replications succeed and others fail across genres and media. |
| affirmative action history timeline: Constitution United States, 1893 |
| affirmative action history timeline: The DeShaney Case Lynne Curry, 2007 Joshua's story -- Child protection in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries -- The crime of child abuse -- DeShaney v. Winnebago County in the lower courts -- DeShaney v. Winnebago County in the U.S. Supreme Court -- Poor Joshua! DeShaney v. Winnebago County in the court of public opinion |
| affirmative action history timeline: Now and Then Judith Stanford, 2004-12-30 68 short readings and 47 visuals put issues of current controversy into historical context. The readings offer recent and varied perspectives on those topics, capturing the moment of change in which we live. |
AFFIRMATIVE Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
The meaning of AFFIRMATIVE is asserting that the fact is so. How to use affirmative in a sentence.
AFFIRMATIVE | English meaning - Cambridge Dictionary
AFFIRMATIVE definition: 1. relating to a statement that shows agreement or says "yes": 2. a word or statement that shows…. Learn more.
AFFIRMATIVE definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary
An affirmative word or gesture indicates that you agree with what someone has said or that the answer to a question is 'yes'.
Affirmative - definition of affirmative by The Free Dictionary
1. affirming or asserting the truth, validity, or fact of something. 2. expressing agreement or consent; assenting: an affirmative reply. 3. positive; not negative. 4. Logic. noting a proposition …
affirmative adjective - Definition, pictures, pronunciation ...
Definition of affirmative adjective in Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Meaning, pronunciation, picture, example sentences, grammar, usage notes, synonyms and more.
affirmative - Wiktionary, the free dictionary
Jan 2, 2025 · affirmative (comparative more affirmative, superlative most affirmative) pertaining to truth ; asserting that something is ; affirming an affirmative answer
Affirmative Definition & Meaning - YourDictionary
Affirmative definition: Asserting that something is true or correct, as with the answer “yes”.
AFFIRMATIVE Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
The meaning of AFFIRMATIVE is asserting that the fact is so. How to use affirmative in a sentence.
AFFIRMATIVE | English meaning - Cambridge Diction…
AFFIRMATIVE definition: 1. relating to a statement that shows agreement or says "yes": 2. a word or statement …
AFFIRMATIVE definition and meaning | Collins English Di…
An affirmative word or gesture indicates that you agree with what someone has said or that the answer …
Affirmative - definition of affirmative by The Free Dicti…
1. affirming or asserting the truth, validity, or fact of something. 2. expressing agreement or consent; assenting: an affirmative reply. 3. …
affirmative adjective - Definition, pictures, pronunci…
Definition of affirmative adjective in Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Meaning, pronunciation, picture, example sentences, grammar, usage …
