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Age and Language Acquisition: A Comprehensive Analysis
Author: Dr. Elena Ramirez, PhD in Linguistics, specializing in second language acquisition and child language development. Dr. Ramirez has over 15 years of experience researching age and language acquisition, including extensive fieldwork with multilingual children and adults in diverse linguistic contexts. She is currently a professor of Linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley, and a leading expert in the critical period hypothesis.
Keyword: age and language acquisition
Introduction:
The relationship between age and language acquisition has been a central topic in linguistics and cognitive science for decades. Understanding how age influences our ability to learn new languages has profound implications for language education, bilingualism research, and our understanding of the human brain’s plasticity. This article will delve into the historical context of this research, exploring key theories and studies, and examining the current relevance and ongoing debates surrounding age and language acquisition.
Historical Context: The Critical Period Hypothesis:
The notion of a critical period for language acquisition, suggesting an optimal window for language learning, dates back to the early 20th century. Eric Lenneberg’s influential work in the 1960s solidified this concept, proposing a biologically determined timeframe during which language acquisition is most efficient. This hypothesis posits that after puberty, the brain's plasticity decreases, making language learning more challenging. This early work fueled much research on age and language acquisition, focusing primarily on the acquisition of a first language (L1).
Evidence for and Against the Critical Period Hypothesis:
While numerous studies have supported aspects of the critical period hypothesis, showing advantages for early language exposure, the existence of a strict biological cutoff remains debated. Studies on second language acquisition (L2) have presented mixed results. While younger learners often achieve higher levels of native-like proficiency, particularly in pronunciation, older learners often demonstrate faster initial progress in vocabulary and grammar, leveraging their cognitive abilities and prior linguistic knowledge. This highlights the complex interplay between age, cognitive maturation, and learning strategies in age and language acquisition.
Factors Beyond Age: The Role of Motivation, Exposure, and Learning Strategies:
Research increasingly emphasizes the importance of factors beyond age in L2 acquisition. Motivation, the amount of exposure to the target language, and the learning strategies employed all significantly influence success, regardless of age. Highly motivated older learners, immersed in a target language environment and employing effective learning strategies, can achieve remarkable proficiency. This suggests that while age might influence the ease and ultimate level of attainment, it is not the sole determinant of success in age and language acquisition.
Current Relevance and Ongoing Debates:
The field of age and language acquisition continues to evolve. Current research explores the neural mechanisms underlying language learning across the lifespan, utilizing advanced neuroimaging techniques like fMRI to investigate brain plasticity and its relationship to age. Furthermore, studies are increasingly investigating the impact of multilingualism on cognitive development and brain health across the lifespan, challenging traditional views on age and language acquisition.
Age and Language Acquisition in the Digital Age:
The digital age has significantly impacted language learning opportunities. Online language learning platforms, language exchange apps, and virtual immersion environments offer unparalleled access to language learning resources regardless of age and geographical location. This raises new questions about the role of technology in optimizing language learning across the lifespan and the potential to mitigate the effects of age on language acquisition.
Summary:
The research on age and language acquisition reveals a complex interplay of biological, cognitive, and socio-cultural factors. While early exposure to language offers advantages, particularly in pronunciation, older learners can achieve high levels of proficiency given sufficient motivation, exposure, and effective learning strategies. The critical period hypothesis remains a topic of debate, with current research focusing on the nuanced interaction of age with other factors influencing language acquisition success. The digital age offers new avenues for language learning, potentially influencing the relationship between age and language acquisition in unforeseen ways.
Publisher: Cambridge University Press – A leading academic publisher with a long-standing reputation for publishing high-quality research in linguistics, cognitive science, and education. Their authority on topics related to age and language acquisition is undeniable, given their extensive catalog of books and journals in these fields.
Editor: Dr. Annelise Meyer, PhD in Cognitive Neuroscience, specializes in the neurobiology of language and has extensive experience editing scholarly works on language acquisition and cognitive development. Her expertise lends significant credibility to this article.
Conclusion:
The field of age and language acquisition is far from settled. While age undoubtedly plays a role, it is not the sole predictor of success in language learning. A holistic approach, considering individual differences in motivation, learning strategies, exposure, and cognitive abilities, is crucial for understanding the complex dynamics of language acquisition across the lifespan. Future research needs to continue exploring the neural mechanisms, cognitive processes, and socio-cultural contexts that shape language learning trajectories at different ages.
FAQs:
1. Is it too late to learn a new language after a certain age? No, it's never too late to learn a new language, though the process might differ from that of younger learners.
2. What are the benefits of learning a language at a young age? Younger learners often achieve native-like pronunciation and fluency more easily.
3. What are the advantages of learning a language as an adult? Adults have better cognitive skills and learning strategies, enabling faster vocabulary and grammar acquisition.
4. What is the critical period hypothesis, and is it still relevant? The critical period hypothesis suggests an optimal window for language acquisition; its validity remains a subject of ongoing debate.
5. How does motivation affect language acquisition regardless of age? High motivation is a crucial factor for success, as it drives persistence and effort.
6. What role does immersion play in age and language acquisition? Immersion significantly enhances learning by providing constant exposure to the target language.
7. How can technology aid in language learning at different ages? Technology offers various tools for learning, practicing, and immersion, making language learning more accessible.
8. Does bilingualism impact cognitive development? Research suggests that bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and executive function.
9. Are there any disadvantages to learning a language later in life? Older learners might face challenges in achieving native-like pronunciation and fluency, but this is not insurmountable.
Related Articles:
1. "The Effects of Age on Second Language Acquisition: A Meta-Analysis": This article presents a statistical review of studies on age and second language acquisition, summarizing findings on the relationship between age of acquisition and ultimate attainment.
2. "Cognitive Factors in Adult Second Language Acquisition": Focuses on the cognitive processes involved in adult language learning, including memory, attention, and problem-solving.
3. "The Role of Motivation in Second Language Acquisition: A Qualitative Study": Explores the impact of motivation on language learning success across different age groups.
4. "Neurolinguistic Aspects of Age and Language Acquisition": Investigates the brain mechanisms involved in language learning across different age groups using neuroimaging techniques.
5. "Language Learning Strategies and Their Effectiveness in Different Age Groups": Compares the use and effectiveness of various learning strategies among learners of different ages.
6. "The Impact of Bilingualism on Cognitive Development in Children": Explores the cognitive benefits of bilingualism in early childhood.
7. "Age and the Acquisition of Phonology: A Cross-Linguistic Perspective": Focuses specifically on the acquisition of pronunciation across different ages and languages.
8. "Second Language Acquisition in the Digital Age: Opportunities and Challenges": Examines the impact of technology on second language acquisition.
9. "Overcoming Challenges in Adult Second Language Acquisition: A Practical Guide": Provides practical tips and strategies for adult learners to overcome common obstacles in language learning.
| age and language acquisition: Language Acquisition David Singleton, Lisa Ryan, 2004-09-06 This book examines the evidence relative to the idea that there is an age factor in first and second language acquisition, evidence that has sources ranging from studies of feral children to evaluations of language programmes in primary schools. It goes on to explore the various explanations that have been advanced to account for such evidence. Finally, it looks at the educational ramifications of the age question, with particular regard to formal second language teaching in the early school years and in ‘third age’ contexts. |
| age and language acquisition: Language Development and Age Julia Herschensohn, 2007-10-18 This book was first published in 2007. The anecdotal view of language acquisition is that children learn language with apparent ease, no instruction and in very little time, while adults find learning a new language to be cognitively challenging, labour intensive and time-consuming. In this book Herschensohn examines whether early childhood is a critical period for language acquisition after which individuals cannot learn a language as native speakers. She argues that a first language is largely susceptible to age constraints, showing major deficits past the age of twelve. Second-language acquisition also shows age effects, but with a range of individual differences. The competence of expert adult learners, the unequal achievements of child learners of second languages, and the lack of consistent evidence for a maturational cut-off, all cast doubt on a critical period for second-language acquisition. |
| age and language acquisition: Age and the Rate of Foreign Language Learning Carmen Muñoz, 2006-07-07 This book examines the various ways in which age affects the process and the product of foreign language learning in a school setting. It presents studies that cover a wide range of topics, from phonetics to learning strategies. It will be of interest to students and researchers working in SLA research, language planning and language teaching. |
| age and language acquisition: The Age Factor in Second Language Acquisition David Michael Singleton, Zsolt Lengyel, 1995-01-01 This book takes a hard look at some of the assumptions that are customarily made concerning the role of age in second language acquisition. The evidence and arguments the contributors present run counter to the notion that an early start in second language learning is of itself either absolutely sufficient or necessary for the attainment of native-like mastery of a second language. Another theme of the book is a doubt that there is a particular stage of maturity beyond which language learning is no longer fully possible. In short, the book presents a challenge to those who take it as given that second language learning is inevitably different in its essential nature from language acquisition in the childhood years and that second language knowledge acquired beyond the critical period is in all circumstances and in all respects doomed to fossilize at a non-native-like level. |
| age and language acquisition: Age in Second Language Acquisition Birgit Harley, 1986 This book aims to carry out an examination of empirical studies in light of the various theoretical perspectives on the relationship between age and ease of language learning. The analysis leads to a number of conclusions concerning the need for future research on specific aspects of L2 acquisition by older and younger learners. |
| age and language acquisition: The Age Factor and Early Language Learning Marianne Nikolov, 2009-10-28 This edited volume documents the state of the art in research into how the age factor interacts with other factors in a variety of educational contexts. The book comprises 17 chapters examining early language learning and teaching in a range of countries in Europe, Asia and North America. Authors discuss main themes in research methodology, curricular and assessment issues, short- and long-term outcomes, the role of individual differences, innovation in teacher education, classroom processes, as well as the impact of the target language. The first two chapters (Nikolov; Edelenbos and Kubanek) overview the main trends in research. Four papers (Curtain;Ofra Inbar-Lourie and Elana Shohamy; Jalkannen; Haenni Hoti, Heinzmann, and Müller) focus on the assessment of young learners; two authors examine how age impacts on language learning over time (Muñoz; Kasai). Individual differences (motivation, anxiety, aptitude, and socio-economic status) are explored byMihaljevi? Djigunovi?, Mattheoudakis and Alexiou, and Kiss. Innovation is the common theme in chapters written by Wang, Moon, and Peng and Zhang. The last three papers analyze the status of languages (Harris, Enever, Carmel). The book is a must have for teacher educators of pre- and in-service teachers of modern languages to young learners, MA and PhD students in TEFL/TESOL and other languages, researchers and policy makers. |
| age and language acquisition: Third language acquisition Camilla Bardel, Laura Sánchez, This book deals with the phenomenon of third language (L3) acquisition. As a research field, L3 acquisition is established as a branch of multilingualism that is concerned with how multilinguals learn additional languages and the role that their multilingual background plays in the process of language learning. The volume points out some current directions in this particular research area with a number of studies that reveal the complexity of multilingual language learning and its typical variation and dynamics. The eight studies gathered in the book represent a wide range of theoretical positions and offer empirical evidence from learners belonging to different age groups, and with varying levels of proficiency in the target language, as well as in other non-native languages belonging to the learner’s repertoire. Diverse linguistic phenomena and language combinations are viewed from a perspective where all previously acquired languages have a potential role to play in the process of learning a new language. In the six empirical studies, contexts of language learning in school or at university level constitute the main outlet for data collection. These studies involve several language backgrounds and language combinations and focus on various linguistic features. The specific target languages in the empirical studies are English, French and Italian. The volume also includes two theoretical chapters. The first one conceptualizes and describes the different types of multilingual language learning investigated in the volume: i) third or additional language learning by learners who are bilinguals from an early age, and ii) third or additional language learning by people who have previous experience of one or more non-native languages learned after the critical period. In particular, issues related to the roles played by age and proficiency in multilingual acquisition are discussed. The other theoretical chapter conceptualizes the grammatical category of aspect, reviewing previous studies on second and third language acquisition of aspect. Different models for L3 learning and their relevance and implications for representations of aspect and for potential differences in the processing of second and third language acquisition are also examined in this chapter. As a whole, the book presents current research into third or additional language learning by young learners or adults, considering some of the most important factors for the complex process of multilingual language learning: the age of onset of the additional language and that of previously acquired languages, social and affective factors, instruction, language proficiency and literacy, the typology of the background languages and the role they play in shaping syntax, lexicon, and other components of a L3. The idea for this book emanates from the symposium Multilingualism, language proficiency and age, organized by Camilla Bardel and Laura Sánchez at Stockholm University, Department of Language Education, in December 2016. |
| age and language acquisition: Age, Accent, and Experience in Second Language Acquisition Alene Moyer, 2004-01-01 This work critically addresses the age debate in second language acquisition studies, presenting an in-depth study of factors that predict foreign accent. Quantitative and qualitative analyses confirm that cognitive, social, and psychological factors contribute to attainment, and that biological influences must therefore be considered alongside these essential aspects of learner experience. |
| age and language acquisition: Age and the Acquisition of English as a Foreign Language María del Pilar García Mayo, María Luisa García Lecumberri, 2003-05-21 This book provides an overview of current research on the age factor in foreign language learning, addressing issues, which are critical for language planning. It presents new research on foreign language learning within bilingual communities in formal instruction settings focussing on syntax, phonology, writing, oral skills and learning strategies. |
| age and language acquisition: Language Acquisition Susan Foster-Cohen, 2009-07-16 This book provides a snapshot of the field of language acquisition at the beginning of the 21st Century. It represents the multiplicity of approaches that characterize the field and provides a review of current topics and debates, as well as addressing some of the connections between sub-fields and possible future directions for research. |
| age and language acquisition: Language Development and Age Julia Herschensohn, 2012-07-19 This book was first published in 2007. The anecdotal view of language acquisition is that children learn language with apparent ease, no instruction and in very little time, while adults find learning a new language to be cognitively challenging, labour intensive and time-consuming. In this book Herschensohn examines whether early childhood is a critical period for language acquisition after which individuals cannot learn a language as native speakers. She argues that a first language is largely susceptible to age constraints, showing major deficits past the age of twelve. Second-language acquisition also shows age effects, but with a range of individual differences. The competence of expert adult learners, the unequal achievements of child learners of second languages, and the lack of consistent evidence for a maturational cut-off, all cast doubt on a critical period for second-language acquisition. |
| age and language acquisition: Age as a Factor in Second Language Acquisition Jasmina Murad, 2007-01-16 Seminar paper from the year 2006 in the subject English Language and Literature Studies - Linguistics, grade: 1,0, Free University of Berlin (Institute for English Linguistics), course: Second Language Acquisition, language: English, abstract: One of the central questions that SLA has tried to answer is why learners of a non-native language (L2) evince such a high degree of interindividual variation in their final attainment relative to the L2 components and skills they have acquired. In order to offer a satisfactory response to this key issue, SLA researchers have posited the existence of a set of individual factors of a very different nature, such as aptitude, motivation, attitude, personality, and intelligence, among others, that might explain such variation. However, one of the most obvious potential explanations for the lack of success of L2 learners compared to L1 learners is that the acquisition of a foreign language begins at a later age than that of the mother tongue does. Thus, it has been prevalently assumed that age itself is a predictor of second language proficiency. This paper focuses on research which has been carried out on maturational constraints for SLA and hereby tries to find answers to various questions concerning age as a factor in SLA. |
| age and language acquisition: The age factor in second language acqisition Felix B., 2014-10-22 Seminar paper from the year 2010 in the subject English Language and Literature Studies - Linguistics, grade: 1,3, Ernst Moritz Arndt University of Greifswald, course: Language Acquisition, language: English, abstract: Human beings have the capacity to acquire not only a mother tongue, but also second or third languages. Consequently it is not unusual that we find much more bilingual and multilingual individuals than monolingual in our world today. Broad levels of population deal with different languages in addition to their mother tongue and this knowledge is more and more seen as normal in nearly every area of life. The potential for acquiring second languages seems to last throughout one’s lifetime but depends on many variables. According to Muriel Saville-Troike individual learners acquire second languages differently in consequence of influencing factors like age, sex, aptitude, motivation, cognitive style, personality or learning strategies. Age as an effective factor in second language acquisition is thereby one of the most controversy variables and recurring themes. The question of whether, and how, age affects this acquiring process has been a major issue in second language research since its establishment. This paper should examine the relationship of the age to second language acquisition. Therefore a number of several studies provide different point of views and some of them will be specified in this paper. The structure is based on the book ‘Language Acquisition: The Age Factor’ by David Singleton and Lisa Ryan (2004) which was also used as main source. In conclusion a critical review on the several positions will be carried out to see whether there is an optimal age to start acquiring a second language or not and whether a critical period hypothesis in second language acquisition exists or not. |
| age and language acquisition: Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis David Birdsong, 1999 Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis is the only book on the market to provide a diverse collection of perspectives, from experienced researchers, on the role of the Critical Period Hypothesis in second language acquisition. It is widely believed that age effects in both first and second language acquisition are developmental in nature, with native levels of attainment in both to be though possible only if learning began before the closure of a window of opportunity – a critical or sensitive period. These seven chapters explore this idea at length, with each contribution acting as an authoritative look at various domains of inquiry in second language acquisition, including syntax, morphology, phonetics/phonology, Universal Grammar, and neurofunctional factors. By presenting readers with an evenly-balanced take on the topic with viewpoints both for and against the Critical Period Hypothesis, this book is the ideal guide to understanding this critical body of research in SLA, for students and researchers in Applied Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition. |
| age and language acquisition: The Age Factor in Second Language Acquisition Carina Kröger, 2016-12-05 Seminar paper from the year 2008 in the subject Didactics for the subject English - Pedagogy, Literature Studies, grade: 1,3, University of Cologne (Englisch), course: Problems in Second Language Acquisition, language: English, abstract: This term paper will focus on the discussion of the putative maturational constraints for second language acquisition. The age factor is an aspect of first and second language acquisition research which has engendered very much controversy. In the discussion about age-related effects on language acquisition, one can find disagreements as to both the facts and to their possible explanations. The different points of view range from the notion that young learners are in all aspects of language learning more efficient and achieve better results, to the contrary position that older learners are the better learners. In this paper, four of the positions concerning the age factor, which have been listed by Singleton, will be presented because they provide a good overview of the different views on this topic and the respective evidence belonging to them. Many of the differences in the results of various studies are due to the differences in how the results are elicited. The experimental design plays an important role for the outcomes. |
| age and language acquisition: Age Effects on Second Language Acquisition Jule Dorin, 2015-11-19 Studienarbeit aus dem Jahr 2015 im Fachbereich Anglistik - Linguistik, Note: 1,7, Universität Paderborn, Veranstaltung: Second Language Acquisition, Sprache: Deutsch, Abstract: It is a widespread belief that the acquisition of a foreign language is much easier for children rather than for adults. It is said that the younger the learner, the better the outcome will be. The same applies for the assumption that an adult learner of a foreign language cannot reach native-like competence, no matter how long the process of acquisition will take, whereas a child indeed can acquire a perfect language without even the hint of a foreign accent. Furthermore, there is a common notion that the age of onset of the acquisition of a second language plays a role in it's further development. Indeed, the acquisition of a foreign language can be a frustrating and very tough experience for adults in, whereas it seems to be a facile and fast proceeding process for children or adolescents. A possible answer to these beliefs may be found in the Critical Period Hypothesis, which states that the age is a major factor for second language acquisition (henceforth SLA) and that there is a time span, where the acquisition of a language functions best. On the other hand, there are studies which want to make clear that in fact, the contrary is true or as well that age has no influence at all when it comes to SLA. This paper aims to find out if there indeed is a connection between the learner's age and his level of proficiency in the L2. |
| age and language acquisition: Incomplete Acquisition in Bilingualism Silvina Montrul, 2008 Age effects have played a particularly prominent role in some theoretical perspectives on second language acquisition. This book takes an entirely new perspective on this issue by re-examining these theories in light of the existence of apparently similar non-native outcomes in adult heritage speakers who, unlike adult second language learners, acquired two or more languages in childhood. Despite having been exposed to their family language early in life, many of these speakers never fully acquire, or later lose, aspects of their first language sometime in childhood. The book examines the structural characteristics of incomplete grammatical states and highlights how age of acquisition is related to the type of linguistic knowledge and behavior that emerges in L1 and L2 acquisition under different environmental circumstances. By underscoring age of acquisition as a unifying factor in the study of L2 acquisition and L1 attrition, it is claimed that just as there are age effects in L2 acquisition, there are also age effects, or even perhaps a critical period, in L1 attrition. The book covers adult L2 acquisition, attrition in adults and in children, and includes a comparison of adult heritage language speakers and second language learners. |
| age and language acquisition: Age as factor in language acquisition and learning Frederik Droste, 2013-05-21 Seminar paper from the year 2013 in the subject Pedagogy - Pedagogic Sociology, grade: 3,0, University of Vechta, course: Spracherwerbs- und Sprachlehrforschung. Learning and Teaching Languages, language: English, abstract: [...] At the beginning of the semester, the students of the course concerned with the topic of “How Languages are Learned” were asked to give an immediate response to several popular opinions. With the benefit of hindsight, one of the most interesting responses was that I ascribed much importance to the following statement: “The earlier a second language is introduced in school programmes, the greater the likelihood of success in learning.”(cf. L&S, p. xvii), and I am sure that many of my fellow students agreed strongly as well. After having studied several theories and research findings concerning this question – the question whether there is the age in which a second language learner should start to get into contact with a foreign language- I could conclude that this question cannot be answered simply by “yes” or “no” since there is a great number of factors influencing success. Learners vary a lot in terms of their brain’s development, their intelligence, their environment in which a second language is spoken, etc. pp. Furthermore, in order to answer the age-question, it is important to be aware of a certain goal of second language acquisition. Is it pronouncing words like a native-speaker? Is it being able to take part in conversations? These factors and questions should thus also be analyzed. Consequently, I would like to present basic theories about this subject as well as research findings and, as explained above, other factors influencing second language acquisition in the following. The results will be supported by my own way of acquiring a second language and will then form the basis for the consequences educators should consider when planning foreign language lessons. Since we used “How Languages are Learned” by Patsy M. Lightbown and Nina Spada as an introduction to this topic, my elementary knowledge is based on this book. [...] |
| age and language acquisition: The Role of Age in Second Language Acquisition Anonym, 2013-08 Seminar paper from the year 2012 in the subject English - Pedagogy, Didactics, Literature Studies, grade: 1,3, Ernst Moritz Arndt University of Greifswald (Chair in English Linguistics), course: Aspects of bilingualism, language: English, abstract: ''Broadly defined, bilingualism refers to knowledge and command of two or more languages, albeit to different degrees. Due to the variety of factors that define dual language speakers and hearers bilingualism comes in many shapes and sizes'' (Grosjean 1998, In: Montrul: 17). That kind of definition summarizes and characterizes the broadness of the term bilingualism. It holds various definitions, and is therefore considered as notational term. In general, the degree of proficiency that must be achieved in at least two languages to define a speaker as bilingual, stays in a debate between linguists, and therefore makes it difficult to give a clear definition of a bilingual speaker. However, in the field of language acquisition, it is not only the definition that offers controversies among the linguists. For example, there is the debate that concerns the advantages and disadvantages of being a bilingual, emerging from the concern a child ''might be confused linguistically, cognitively, emotionally, and possibly even morally'' (Meisel 2004: 91). These kind of statements lead to the general assumption that monolingualism is the norm although, today bilinguals are in the majority (cf. Baker 2010: 68). On the one hand, early second language acquisition is seen as a danger for children, on the other hand, children are considered to be better in language learning. This paper with the title ''The role of age in second language acquisition'' will concentrate on the controversial opinions towards the influence of age in second language acquisition. It is based on the assumption that children are better in language learning, and it will discuss the influence of age in second language acquisition by comparing different linguistic positi |
| age and language acquisition: The Way of the Linguist Steve Kaufmann, 2005-11 The Way of The Linguist, A language learning odyssey. It is now a cliché that the world is a smaller place. We think nothing of jumping on a plane to travel to another country or continent. The most exotic locations are now destinations for mass tourism. Small business people are dealing across frontiers and language barriers like never before. The Internet brings different languages and cultures to our finger-tips. English, the hybrid language of an island at the western extremity of Europe seems to have an unrivalled position as an international medium of communication. But historically periods of cultural and economic domination have never lasted forever. Do we not lose something by relying on the wide spread use of English rather than discovering other languages and cultures? As citizens of this shrunken world, would we not be better off if we were able to speak a few languages other than our own? The answer is obviously yes. Certainly Steve Kaufmann thinks so, and in his busy life as a diplomat and businessman he managed to learn to speak nine languages fluently and observe first hand some of the dominant cultures of Europe and Asia. Why do not more people do the same? In his book The Way of The Linguist, A language learning odyssey, Steve offers some answers. Steve feels anyone can learn a language if they want to. He points out some of the obstacles that hold people back. Drawing on his adventures in Europe and Asia, as a student and businessman, he describes the rewards that come from knowing languages. He relates his evolution as a language learner, abroad and back in his native Canada and explains the kind of attitude that will enable others to achieve second language fluency. Many people have taken on the challenge of language learning but have been frustrated by their lack of success. This book offers detailed advice on the kind of study practices that will achieve language breakthroughs. Steve has developed a language learning system available online at: www.thelinguist.com. |
| age and language acquisition: Second-Language Acquisition in Childhood Barry McLaughlin, 1985 First published in 1987. Routledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis, an informa company. |
| age and language acquisition: Beyond Age Effects in Instructional L2 Learning Simone E. Pfenninger, David Singleton, 2017-04-21 This book constitutes a holistic study of how and why late starters surpass early starters in comparable instructional settings. Combining advanced quantitative methods with individual-level qualitative data, it examines the role of age of onset in the context of the Swiss multilingual educational system and focuses on performance at the beginning and end of secondary school, thereby offering a long-term view of the teenage experience of foreign language learning. The study scrutinised factors that seem to prevent young starters from profiting from their extended learning period and investigated the mechanisms that enable late beginners to catch up with early beginners relatively quickly. Taking account of contextual factors, individual socio-affective factors and instructional factors within a single longitudinal study, the book makes a convincing case that age of onset is not only of minimal relevance for many aspects of instructed language acquisition, but that in this context, for a number of reasons, a later onset can be beneficial. |
| age and language acquisition: The Oxford Handbook of African American Language Sonja L. Lanehart, 2015 Offers a set of diverse analyses of traditional and contemporary work on language structure and use in African American communities. |
| age and language acquisition: Practice in a Second Language Robert DeKeyser, 2007-03-12 This volume focuses on 'practice' from a theoretical perspective and includes implications for the classroom. |
| age and language acquisition: Child Language Barbara C. Lust, 2006-09-21 The remarkable way in which young children acquire language has long fascinated linguists and developmental psychologists alike. Language is a skill that we have essentially mastered by the age of three, and with incredible ease and speed, despite the complexity of the task. This accessible textbook introduces the field of child language acquisition, exploring language development from birth. Setting out the key theoretical debates, it considers questions such as what characteristics of the human mind make it possible to acquire language; how far acquisition is biologically programmed and how far it is influenced by our environment; what makes second language learning (in adulthood) different from first language acquisition; and whether the specific stages in language development are universal across languages. Clear and comprehensive, it is set to become a key text for all courses in child language acquisition, within linguistics, developmental psychology and cognitive science. |
| age and language acquisition: Cross-linguistic Influence in Third Language Acquisition Jasone Cenoz, Britta Hufeisen, Ulrike Jessner, 2001-01-01 Third language acquisition is a common phenomenon, which presents some specific characteristics as compared to second language acquisition. This volume adopts a psycholinguistic approach in the study of cross-linguistic influence in third language acquisition and focuses on the role of previously acquired languages and the conditions that determine their influence. |
| age and language acquisition: High-Level Language Proficiency in Second Language and Multilingual Contexts Kenneth Hyltenstam, Inge Bartning, Lars Fant, 2020-09-24 The issue of high-level language proficiency in other than monolingual contexts can be approached from a variety of perspectives, including linguistic/structural; psycholinguistic/cognitive and sociolinguistic/societal. Bringing together a team of experts, this volume takes a novel empirical approach to the subject combined with an up-to-date understanding of these research areas, to answer two important research questions in the field of second language acquisition: what conditions allow learners to attain an outstanding level of proficiency in a second language, and what factors still prevent them from becoming entirely like first language speakers. Looking at a range of European languages including English, French, Italian, Spanish and Swedish, it provides important insights into second language use at the highest levels as well as in high-proficient mixed language use in multicultural settings. A useful tool for both language teaching and language teacher training, it provides a solid grounding for further study in this important area of research. |
| age and language acquisition: Third Age Learners of Foreign Languages Danuta Gabryś-Barker, 2017-12-18 People are increasingly reaching the so-called third age, a period when seniors search for a renewed purpose to life and spend time undertaking activities that they consider motivating, such as the learning of a foreign language. The study of language learning among aging populations has become a fast-growing area of research and this book is one of the first attempts to bring together what we know about this age group and their profiles as foreign language learners. Contributors to the volume discuss the issue from various psychological, neurological and pedagogical perspectives. Each of the chapters provides an updated theoretical background and offers some initial conclusions on the basis of original empirical studies carried out. Chapters challenge certain familiar preconceptions and assumptions about senior learners, offer the reader ideas for future research in this under-studied area and provide some practical advice for applying the proposals and solutions offered in real foreign language third-age classrooms. |
| age and language acquisition: Foreign Language Learning in the Digital Age Christiane Lütge, 2022-01-31 Foreign Language Learning in the Digital Age addresses the growing significance of diversifying media in contemporary society and expands on current discourses that have formulated media and a multitude of literacies as integral objectives in 21st-century education. The book engages with epistemological and critical foundations of multiliteracies and related pedagogies for foreign language-learning contexts. It includes a discussion of how multimodal and digital media impact meaning-making practices in learning, the inherent potentials and challenges that are foregrounded in the use of multimodal and digital media and the contribution that (foreign) language education can provide in developing multiliteracies. The volume additionally addresses foreign language education across the formal educational spectrum: from primary education to adult and teacher education. This multifaceted volume presents the scope of media and literacies for foreign language education in the digital age and examples of best practice for working with media in formal language learning contexts. This book will be of great interest to academics, researchers, and post-graduate students in the fields of language teaching and learning, digital education, media education, applied linguistics and TESOL. |
| age and language acquisition: Child Language Matthew Saxton, 2010-02-15 Electronic Inspection Copy available for instructors here Presented with the latest thinking and research on how children acquire their first language, the reader is taken from a standing start to the point where they can engage with key debates and current research in the field of child language. No background knowledge of linguistic theory is assumed and all specialist terms are introduced in clear, non-technical language. A theme running through the book is the nature-nurture debate, rekindled in the modern era by Noam Chomsky, with his belief that the child is born with a rich knowledge of language. This book is rare in its balanced presentation of evidence from both sides of the nature-nurture divide. The reader is encouraged to adopt a critical stance throughout and weigh up the evidence for themselves. Key features for the student include: boxes and exercises to foster an understanding of key concepts in language and linguistics; a glossary of key terms; suggestions for further reading; a list of useful websites at the end of each chapter; discussion points for use in class; and separate author and subject indexes. |
| age and language acquisition: Age as a factor in various theories of Second Language Acquisition Elena Agathokleous, 2021-08-31 Essay from the year 2019 in the subject Speech Science / Linguistics, grade: A, , language: English, abstract: A discussion of how age as a factor influences second language acquisition. On one hand, theories like Chomsky’s theory on Universal Grammar (UG) and the monitor theory support that language faculty in children is innate and consists of the possession of a language acquisition device for the processing of language which facilitates language acquisition for a critical period and it is not available to older learners thus favoring younger learners in second language acquisition. On the other hand theories like cognitive psychology and socio-cultural theories favor older learners which are more able to practice and pay attention in a process of intentional learning in which no special brain devices or structures are considered necessary. |
| age and language acquisition: Later Language Development Marilyn A. Nippold, 1998 |
| age and language acquisition: Breaking the Language Barrier George Hollich, Kathy Hirsh-Pasek, Roberta Golinkoff, 2000-10-26 How do children learn their first words? The field of language development has been polarized by responses to this question. Explanations range from accounts that emphasize the importance of cognitive heuristics in language acquisition, to those that highlight the role of dumb attentional mechanisms in word learning. This monograph offers an alternative to these accounts. A hybrid view of word-learning, called the emergentist coalition theory, combines cognitive constraints, social-pragmatic factors, and global attentional mechanisms to arrive at a balanced account of how children construct principles of word learning. In twelve experiments, with children ranging from 12 to 25 months of age, data are described that support the emergentist coalition theory. |
| age and language acquisition: Language Development in the Digital Age Mila Vulchanova, Giosuè Baggio, Angelo Cangelosi, Linda Smith, 2017-10-18 The digital age is changing our children’s lives and childhood dramatically. New technologies transform the way people interact with each other, the way stories are shared and distributed, and the way reality is presented and perceived. Parents experience that toddlers can handle tablets and apps with a level of sophistication the children’s grandparents can only envy. The question of how the ecology of the child affects the acquisition of competencies and skills has been approached from different angles in different disciplines. In linguistics, psychology and neuroscience, the central question addressed concerns the specific role of exposure to language. Two influential types of theory have been proposed. On one view the capacity to learn language is hard-wired in the human brain: linguistic input is merely a trigger for language to develop. On an alternative view, language acquisition depends on the linguistic environment of the child, and specifically on language input provided through child-adult communication and interaction. The latter view further specifies that factors in situated interaction are crucial for language learning to take place. In the fields of information technology, artificial intelligence and robotics a current theme is to create robots that develop, as children do, and to establish how embodiment and interaction support language learning in these machines. In the field of human-machine interaction, research is investigating whether using a physical robot, rather than a virtual agent or a computer-based video, has a positive effect on language development. The Research Topic will address the following issues: - What are the methodological challenges faced by research on language acquisition in the digital age? - How should traditional theories and models of language acquisition be revised to account for the multimodal and multichannel nature of language learning in the digital age? - How should existing and future technologies be developed and transformed so as to be most beneficial for child language learning and cognition? - Can new technologies be tailored to support child growth, and most importantly, can they be designed in order to enhance specifically vulnerable children’s language learning environment and opportunities? - What kind of learning mechanisms are involved? - How can artificial intelligence and robotics technologies, as robot tutors, support language development? These questions and issues can only be addressed by means of an interdisciplinary approach that aims at developing new methods of data collection and analysis in cross-sectional and longitudinal perspectives. We welcome contributions addressing these questions from an interdisciplinary perspective both theoretically and empirically. |
| age and language acquisition: Exploring Linguistic Science Allison Burkette, William A. Kretzschmar Jr., 2018-03-15 Introduces students to the scientific study of language, using the basic principles of complexity theory. |
| age and language acquisition: First Language Acquisition Eve V. Clark, 2009-01-22 In this volume, Eve V. Clark takes a comprehensive look at where and when children acquire a first language. All the major findings and debates are presented in a highly readable form. |
| age and language acquisition: Child-adult Differences in Second Language Acquisition Stephen D. Krashen, Robin C. Scarcella, Michael H. Long, 1982 |
| age and language acquisition: Age and the Rate of Foreign Language Learning Carmen Muñoz, 2006-01-01 This book examines the various ways in which age affects the process and the product of foreign language learning in a school setting. It presents studies that cover a wide range of topics, from phonetics to learning strategies. It will be of interest to students and researchers working in SLA research, language planning and language teaching. |
| age and language acquisition: Understanding Second Language Acquisition Lourdes Ortega, 2014-02-04 Whether we grow up with one, two, or several languages during our early years of life, many of us will learn a second, foreign, or heritage language in later years. The field of Second language acquisition (SLA, for short) investigates the human capacity to learn additional languages in late childhood, adolescence, or adulthood, after the first language --in the case of monolinguals-- or languages --in the case of bilinguals-- have already been acquired. Understanding Second Language Acquisition offers a wide-encompassing survey of this burgeoning field, its accumulated findings and proposed theories, its developed research paradigms, and its pending questions for the future. The book zooms in and out of universal, individual, and social forces, in each case evaluating the research findings that have been generated across diverse naturalistic and formal contexts for second language acquisition. It assumes no background in SLA and provides helpful chapter-by-chapter summaries and suggestions for further reading. Ideal as a textbook for students of applied linguistics, foreign language education, TESOL, and education, it is also recommended for students of linguistics, developmental psycholinguistics, psychology, and cognitive science. Supporting resources for tutors are available free at www.routledge.com/ortega. |
| age and language acquisition: Bilingualism Across the Lifespan Elena Nicoladis, Simona Montanari, 2016-06-20 This book pioneers the study of bilingualism across the lifespan and in all its diverse forms. In framing the newest research within a lifespan perspective, the editors highlight the importance of considering an individual's age in researching how bilingualism affects language acquisition and cognitive development. A key theme is the variability among bilinguals, which may be due to a host of individual and sociocultural factors, including the degree to which bilingualism is valued within a particular context.Thus, this book is a call for language researchers, psychologists, and educators to pursue a better understanding of bilingualism in our increasingly global society. |
Age Calculator
This free age calculator computes age in terms of years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes, and seconds, given a date of birth.
Age Calculator | age-calculator.org
Age Calculator is a free online tool to calculate the age or time difference between two dates. The calculated age will be displayed in years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes, and also in …
Age Calculator (How old am I?)
This free online age calculator, a.k.a. Pearson age calculator, makes it as easy as possible to calculate the age of a person, movable property, real estate, institution, or a company. All you …
How Old Am I? Exact Age Calculator
Aug 9, 2019 · After entering your birth day click on the submit button & it will automatically calculate your exact age today in years, days, hours & minutes. If you wanted to know how old …
Online Age Calculator - Find chronological age from date of birth
This is a free online tool by EverydayCalculation.com to calculate chronological age from date of birth. The calculator can tell you your age on any specified date in years, months, weeks and …
Age Calculator: Find Your Age from Date of Birth
Calculate your age accurately by a set date with our easy-to-use age calculator tool. Answer the question, how many days old am I instantly! Try it now.
How Old Am I? | Best Age Calculator to Find Your Age Now
Find Your Exact Age Now with Our Age Calculator. Have you ever wondered, "How old am I today?" or "What year was I born?" Our age calculator helps you find your exact age now, …
Age Calculator
May 14, 2025 · The age calculator finds age in years, months, days and minutes given a date of birth. Calculate age, time between DOB and any date, or someone's age at death.
Age Calculator | How old am I? | Calculate age from date of birth
The best age calculator apps for determining your age. The ultimate birthday calculator: How old are you in months, weeks, days, minutes? Did you ever want to know how old you will be if …
Age Calculator (How Old Am I?)
Simply use the ' Age at Date ' option in our calculator and enter a date in either the past or future. Our calculation tool will then calculate based upon that date. Your age can be calculated by …
Age Calculator
This free age calculator computes age in terms of years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes, and seconds, given a date of birth.
Age Calculator | age-calculator.org
Age Calculator is a free online tool to calculate the age or time difference between two dates. The calculated age will be displayed in years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes, and also in …
Age Calculator (How old am I?)
This free online age calculator, a.k.a. Pearson age calculator, makes it as easy as possible to calculate the age of a person, movable property, real estate, institution, or a company. All you …
How Old Am I? Exact Age Calculator
Aug 9, 2019 · After entering your birth day click on the submit button & it will automatically calculate your exact age today in years, days, hours & minutes. If you wanted to know how old …
Online Age Calculator - Find chronological age from date of birth
This is a free online tool by EverydayCalculation.com to calculate chronological age from date of birth. The calculator can tell you your age on any specified date in years, months, weeks and …
Age Calculator: Find Your Age from Date of Birth
Calculate your age accurately by a set date with our easy-to-use age calculator tool. Answer the question, how many days old am I instantly! Try it now.
How Old Am I? | Best Age Calculator to Find Your Age Now
Find Your Exact Age Now with Our Age Calculator. Have you ever wondered, "How old am I today?" or "What year was I born?" Our age calculator helps you find your exact age now, …
Age Calculator
May 14, 2025 · The age calculator finds age in years, months, days and minutes given a date of birth. Calculate age, time between DOB and any date, or someone's age at death.
Age Calculator | How old am I? | Calculate age from date of birth
The best age calculator apps for determining your age. The ultimate birthday calculator: How old are you in months, weeks, days, minutes? Did you ever want to know how old you will be if …
Age Calculator (How Old Am I?)
Simply use the ' Age at Date ' option in our calculator and enter a date in either the past or future. Our calculation tool will then calculate based upon that date. Your age can be calculated by …
